From: Subject: =?iso-8859-1?Q?Reasons_To_Bel?= =?iso-8859-1?Q?ieve:_Facts_Fo?= =?iso-8859-1?Q?r_Faith_Issue_?= =?iso-8859-1?Q?4=2C_2000?= Date: Tue, 20 Jan 2004 00:12:29 -0500 MIME-Version: 1.0 Content-Type: multipart/related; boundary="----=_NextPart_000_00FD_01C3DEEA.183C62B0"; type="text/html" X-MimeOLE: Produced By Microsoft MimeOLE V5.00.3314.1001 This is a multi-part message in MIME format. ------=_NextPart_000_00FD_01C3DEEA.183C62B0 Content-Type: text/html; charset="iso-8859-1" Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable Content-Location: =?iso-8859-1?B?aHR0cDovL3d3dy5yZWE=?= =?iso-8859-1?B?c29ucy5vcmcvcmVzb3U=?= =?iso-8859-1?B?cmNlcy9mZmYvMjAwMGk=?= =?iso-8859-1?B?c3N1ZTA0L2luZGV4LnM=?= =?iso-8859-1?B?aHRtbD9tYWlu?= Reasons To Believe: Facts For Faith Issue 4, = 2000

Facts for Faith

Issue 4, 2000

Articles

Repeatable=20 Evolution or Repeated Creation=20
Bob=20 Stewart: Soldier, Astronaut, and Compelling Apologist=20
God=92s=20 Plan for Humanity=97Paradise Restored or Paradise Replaced?=20
Convergence:=20 Evidence for a Single Creator=20
The=20 Measurability of the Universe=96=96a Record of the Creator=92s = Design=20
First=20 Detection of Earth-sized Planet?=20
Protein=20 Structures Reveal Even More Evidence for Design=20
Problem=20 of Evil (Part Two)=20
Thinking=20 About The Incarnation: The Divine Word Became Flesh=20
Book=20 Review: Finding Darwin=92s God

* Due to copyrights, original graphics and = tables do=20 not appear in these articles

Repeatable=20 Evolution or Repeated Creation?

By Fazale Rana

Any casual observer of nature recognizes that many creatures = bear some=20 resemblance to one another. Many species of frogs, lizards, fish, = and=20 other animals and plants from different parts of the world appear = to be=20 nearly identical. This similarity has been the pattern throughout = life=92s=20 history. Recent biological studies have shed light on the nature = of this=20 physical resemblance and carry significant apologetic = implications. Many=20 species that look identical are, in fact, genetically different, = and=20 therefore unrelated. In accounting for these unexpected = differences,=20 evolutionary biologists have proffered inadequate explanations. = This=20 article will discuss a few of the many recent discoveries that = continue to=20 buttress the case for a biblical creator while continuing to erode = the=20 foundation for the evolutionary paradigm.

According to evolutionary theory, organisms that possess = identical=20 morphologies (forms or structures) must share a common = ancestry.=20 Evolutionary biologists, therefore, have employed morphological = systematics=96=96the study of the relationships among = organisms according=20 to physical characteristics=96=96when classifying species, and = thus have=20 concluded that similar groups share common ancestry. However, with = the=20 advent and widespread application of molecular systematics, = in=20 which DNA sequences are used instead of morphologies to determine=20 biological relationships, science now is beginning to identify an=20 increasing number of challenges to the evolutionary = classification.=20 Biologists are uncovering numerous examples of organisms that = cluster=20 together morphologically (structurally), and yet are = genetically distinct. Frogs, lizards, or herbs that appear = to be=20 identical are actually different at the genetic level. An = evolutionary=20 interpretation of this data, then, demands that the = morphologically=20 identical organisms must have evolved independently of one = another=20 in a =93repeatable=94 fashion.

The Contingent Nature of the Evolutionary Process

The evolutionary paradigm cannot accommodate =93repeatable=94 = evolution.=20 When evolutionists observe a tree frog ideally suited for its = environment,=20 they assert that natural selection=96=96environmental, predatory, = and=20 competitive pressures repeatedly operating on random inheritable=20 variations for long periods of time=96=96has led to this = relationship. Chance=20 governs the evolutionary process at its most fundamental level. = Because of=20 this, it is expected that repeated evolutionary events will result = in=20 dramatically different outcomes. The concept of Historical=20 Contingency embodies this idea and is the theme of Stephen J. = Gould=92s=20 Wonderful Life:

=93=85No finale can be specified at the start, none = would ever=20 occur a second time in the same way, because any pathway = proceeds=20 through thousands of improbable stages. Alter any early event, = ever so=20 slightly, and without apparent importance at the time, and = evolution=20 cascades into a radically different channel.=94¹⁼²⁰

Gould=92s metaphor of =93replaying life=92s tape=94 asserts = that if one were to=20 push the rewind button, erase life=92s history, and let the tape = run again,=20 the results would be completely different.² The very = essence of=20 the evolutionary process renders evolutionary outcomes as = nonreproducible=20 (or nonrepeatable). Therefore, =93repeatable=94 evolution is = inconsistent with=20 the mechanism available to bring about biological change.

A Test for Evolution, A Test for Creation

The idea of Historical Contingency suggests that one powerful = way to=20 discriminate between the =93appearance of design=94 that results = from the=20 evolutionary process and Intelligent Design is to determine if = contingency=20 is operating in the biological realm.³ If life is = exclusively the result of evolutionary processes, then biologists = should=20 expect to see few, if any, cases in which evolution has = =93repeated=94 itself.=20 This is simply not the case. During the last six years numerous = examples=20 of =93repeatable=94 evolution have come to light as molecular data = has been=20 increasingly used in biological systematics. These findings = demonstrate=20 that the evolutionary paradigm fails the test of contingency. The=20 discovery of morphologically identical, yet genetically unrelated=20 organisms does, however, offer powerful support for biblical = creation.=20 These examples of =93repeatable=94 evolution include anolis = lizards, ranid=20 frogs, cichlids, sticklebacks, mangabeys, river dolphins, and=20 Pericallis, an island plant.

Anolis Lizards

Anolis lizard species found on the = islands=20 of the Greater Antilles (Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica, and Puerto = Rico) are=20 perfectly adapted to fit into six distinctive ecological=20 niches.⁴ A species that is perfectly suited for a = particular ecological niche is termed an ecomorph. Two examples of = Anolis lizard ecomorphs found on the Greater Antilles are = small=20 lizards with short legs that live on fragile twigs, and large = lizards with=20 large toe pads that occupy the crowns of trees. Morphological = analysis of=20 the Anolis lizards that populate the Greater Antilles = reveals=20 objectively recognizable groups of ecomorphs.⁵ = Based on=20 their morphological features (or close resemblance), members of = the same=20 ecomorph grouping from the different islands were found to be more = closely=20 related to one another than lizards from the same island.

Given the contingent nature of the evolutionary process, = therefore, it=20 would be expected that each ecomorph evolved a single time from an = ancestral species. Each ecomorph produced by a single evolutionary = sequence of events would have then dispersed among the islands of = the=20 Greater Antilles. However, when this model was tested by comparing = mitochondrial DNA sequences of the different Anolis species, it = was=20 discovered that lizards in the same ecomorph class were not = related to one=20 another.⁶ This study concluded that it would have = taken=20 at least 17-19 separate evolutionary pathways to produce all the = Anolis=20 ecomorphs, if natural process evolution was the explanatory agent. = Commenting on this work, biologists P.H. Harvey and L. Partridge, = state,=20 =93It seems that as the tape of life has been replayed in separate = islands,=20 there has been a remarkable amount of convergent=20 evolution.=94⁷

Ranid Frogs

Ranidfrogs=96=96 comprised of over 1000 species=96=96are common = throughout the=20 world. These frogs have adapted to a wide range of lifestyles and=20 habitats. Two of the Ranid subfamilies, Rhacophorinae = (tree=20 frogs) and Tomopterninal (burrowing frogs) are found both = in=20 Madagascar and on the Indian sub-continent of Asia. They are = nearly=20 indistinguishable in their morphological, physiological and = developmental=20 characteristics and form two groups of ecomorphs.

Frogs, specifically, and amphibians, in general, cannot migrate = through=20 salty environments. Therefore, it has long been held, from an = evolutionary=20 standpoint, that the tree frogs and burrowing frogs evolved prior = to the=20 separation of the Madagascar-Seychelles-Indian tectonic plate from = Gondwanaland (the earth=92s one land mass prior to tectonic = separation). It=20 is believed that this tectonic plate drifted away from = Gondwanaland about=20 130 million years ago, separated to form Madagascar, and finally = attached=20 onto Eurasia to form the Indian sub-continent. Some tree and = burrowing=20 frogs were passively carried along and became isolated from one = another.=20

Nuclear and mitochondrial DNA analyses of Madagascar and Indian = Ranid=20 frogs demonstrate, however, that the evolutionary explanation is=20 untenable.⁸ DNA sequence analysis clusters these=20 ecomorphs based on geography not morphological = features. In=20 other words, from an evolutionary perspective, burrowing frogs and = tree=20 frogs in Madagascar and India must have evolved = independently. This=20 same study has also identified examples of =93repeated=94 = evolution for Ranid=20 ecomorphs located in Sri Lanka and India.⁹ Even more = amazing,=20 researchers conclude from the DNA sequence analysis that the = larval=20 characteristics of several Madagascar and Indian ecomorphs are = also=20 identical. This means that the complex developmental pathways and = larval=20 lifestyles must have evolved independently on several = occasions to=20 produce the same result=96=96if the data is viewed from an = evolutionary=20 perspective.¹⁰

Cichlids

Cichlids=96=96freshwater fish that are widely diverse in form, = color and=20 habits=96=96are scattered throughout the Southern Hemisphere.^=
11=20 Numerous examples of cichlid ecomorphs have been recognized in = lakes=20 Victoria, Malawi and Tanganyika of East Africa. An evolutionary=20 explanation would postulate that each of the ecomorphs evolved a = single=20 time and then was independently isolated in each lake after water = levels=20 subsided, causing a single lake to split into three geographically = separated lakes.¹²

Sequence analysis of mitochondrial DNA, however, indicates that = the=20 ecomorphs found in the three East African lakes must have evolved=20 independently, multiple times, assuming an evolutionary=20 explanation.^{13, 14, 15, 16, 17} Also, researchers have = noted the=20 independent emergence of ecomorphs for cichlids in two lakes in=20 Cameroon.¹⁸ Even more striking is the recent = recognition=20 that multiple independent origins occurred for ecomorphs within = different=20 regions of a single lake, Tanganyika.¹⁹ That is, = from an=20 evolutionary perspective, some cichlid species in Lake Tanganyika = are=20 viewed as separate, morphologically indistinguishable species that = =93evolved=94 in exactly the same way multiple times.

Like the cichlids, scientists believe the sticklebacks species = found in=20 British Columbia evolved several times independently to produce = the same=20 ecomorphs. The same two stickleback species, bulky benthic=20 (bottom-dwelling) feeders and streamline open-water feeders, live = in=20 isolated lakes near the Pacific coast of British Columbia. The = standard=20 evolutionary explanation maintains that these two species evolved = from one=20 marine stickleback species, became trapped and isolated in the = lakes after=20 sea levels changed, and then independently populated the=20 lakes.²⁰ Mitochondrial DNA analysis provides results = contrary=20 to the most plausible evolutionary explanations.²¹ = These=20 results indicate that the stickleback species from the same lake = have a=20 greater degree of genetic similarity than do morphologically = identical=20 species from different lakes. From an evolutionary viewpoint, = therefore,=20 stickleback ecomorphs in the isolated lakes must be the = product of=20 =93reproducible=94 evolutionary events.

A recent breeding experiment affirms the previous=20 conclusion.²² In a laboratory environment, = researchers=20 discovered that corresponding ecomorphs from different lakes = attempt to=20 interbreed with one another, while eschewing the different = ecomorphs that=20 share their lakes. This result is interesting in light of the = biological=20 definition of a species. Biologically, a species is = considered to be=20 an interbreeding population of individuals. The willingness of the = same=20 ecomorphs from different lakes to interbreed points to just how = profound=20 the similarity is among the stickleback ecomorphs=96=96both = morphologically=20 and behaviorally.

Mangabeys

Mangabeys are large Old World monkeys found in Africa. = Morphological=20 similarity has traditionally led biologists to place all the = mangabey=20 species into a single genus, Cercocebus. Baboons, drills,=20 mandrills, and geladas are closely related to mangabeys. Earlier = molecular=20 studies and mitochondrial DNA sequence analysis challenged the=20 morphologically based classification that places mangabeys into a = single=20 group.^{23, 24} These studies indicated that = the single=20 mangabey genus should have been separated into two groups, and = that the=20 nearly identical mangabey morphologies must have evolved = independently two=20 times. Recent nuclear DNA analyses have confirmed that mangabey = morphology=20 =93evolved=94 on two separate occasions, when viewed from the = evolutionary=20 paradigm.²⁵

These results not only support two morphologically = indistinguishable=20 genera, Cercocebus and Lophocebus, but also indicate that the = strong=20 morphological similarities of drills, mandrills and baboons must = have=20 evolved independently as well. Nuclear DNA sequence analysis = aligns drills=20 and mandrills with the mangabey genus, Cercocebus, and baboons and = geladas=20 with the mangabey genus, Lophocebus.²⁶ Inspired by the = results=20 of the molecular studies, two biologists have recently recognized = subtle=20 morphological differences in dental features and in the arm and = leg bones=20 of the Cercocebus and Lophocebus mangabeys.²⁷ = However,=20 these skeletal and dental differences are so slight that without = the=20 supporting DNA sequence data it is questionable if these = differences would=20 have been recognized at all, let alone accepted as significant. =

River Dolphins

Unlike other marine mammals (whales, porpoises, and dolphins), = river=20 dolphins live in freshwater, river environments. There are four = extant=20 river dolphin species. Three of these species live exclusively in=20 freshwater and one (the La Plata dolphin) lives both in estuaries = and=20 coastal waters. The freshwater dolphins inhabit the Ganges and = Brahmaptura=20 Rivers of India, the Yangtze River of China, and the Amazon River. =

River dolphins share similar and characteristic morphologies. = The most=20 commonplace view among biologists is that the river dolphins = emerged from=20 a single evolutionary pathway. Mitochondrial and nuclear DNA = sequence=20 analysis now demonstrates otherwise.²⁸ In other words,=20 if the DNA sequence data is interpreted within an = evolutionary=20 context, the four river dolphin species must have evolved the same = characteristic features independently and repeatedly.

Pericallis

Pericallis, a genus of plants related to sunflowers, are = found=20 in the Macaronesian archipelago (Azores, Canary Islands, Cape = Verde,=20 Madeira and Selvagens) off the west coast of = Africa.²⁹ Of=20 the Pericallis species found in the Macaronesian islands, = six are=20 woody and nine are herbaceous. This is not surprising, since many = island=20 plants are woody variants of mainland herbs or soft-bodied plants. =

The most reasonable evolutionary explanation for the origin of=20 Pericallis woodiness is that it evolved on the mainland and found = its way=20 to the Macaronesian islands. However, nuclear DNA sequence = analysis=20 betrays this explanation by revealing no genetic similarity. When = examined=20 employing evolutionary assumptions, therefore, the data indicates = that=20 Pericallis woodiness musthave evolved on at least two separate=20 occasions.³⁰

Evolutionary Attempts to Account for Repeatable Evolution

In isolation, each case of =93repeatable=94 evolution can be = viewed as an=20 oddity and poses no real threat to the =93truth=94 of biological = evolution.=20 However, the many cases of =93repeatable=94 evolution=96=96in = which entire=20 organisms seem to evolve independently and = reproducibly=96=96simply doesn=92t=20 follow, given the nature of the mechanism available to drive the=20 evolutionary process, chance. Biologists who embrace = methodological=20 naturalism=96=96the notion that only natural explanations can be = used to=20 account for phenomena in the physical and material world=96=96do = indeed regard=20 the occurrences of =93repeatable=94 evolution as unexpected and = remarkable.=20 However, their philosophical predisposition does not allow them to = be open=20 to the possibility that a Creator is responsible for the repeated=20 occurrences of ecomorphs found in nature. These = morphologically=20 indistinguishable, yet genetically distinct ecomorphs can be = properly=20 considered as one of the many fingerprints that the Creator has = left on=20 His creation. In fact, if a single Creator was responsible for = life, one=20 could anticipate seeing repeated examples of the same blueprint = throughout=20 the biological realm. One would expect that a single Creator would = reuse=20 successful designs over and over again.

Given the examples cited previously, evolutionary biologists = cannot=20 seem to account for =93repeatable=94 evolution. One attempt at = explaining this=20 phenomenon is to attribute =93special=94 capability to the forces = of natural=20 selection.³¹ Since organisms are perfectly suited for = their=20 ecological milieu, and therefore more likely to survive to = reproductive=20 age, it is thought that the forces of natural = selection=96=96competitive,=20 predatory, and environmental influences=96=96repeatedly = =93channel=94 the=20 evolutionary process down the same pathway to produce the same = organisms.=20 This explanation for recurrent evolution neglects the fact that = selective=20 forces are nothing more than a blind filter. Natural selection can = only=20 operate on traits made available by random changes in the = population=92s=20 genetic makeup. It is not likely that these changes would be = repeatable,=20 given the complexity of genomes, nor that they would occur in the = same=20 historical sequence.

Additionally, it is unlikely that the factors that made up an=20 organism=92s ecology would be identical throughout time. Changes = to the=20 ecological environment in Madagascar, for example, would not be = identical=20 to the changes in the ecological environment in India. The = components of=20 natural selection are influenced by chance and by history. = Therefore,=20 natural selection would not be expected to guide separate = evolutionary=20 sequences and then produce morphological traits in an organism = that=20 somehow remarkably converge.

One well-known experiment with bacteria has led evolutionary = biologists=20 to conclude that natural selection can direct the convergence of = features=20 in the evolutionary process.³³ These experiments = demonstrated=20 that bacterial populations subjected to identical environments = achieved=20 similar fitness (a measure of the ability of an organism to = survive)=20 regardless of chance, mutational events, and history. However, the = conclusion drawn from these experiments does not support such a = directive=20 role for natural selection for two reasons.

First, fitness is different from morphological characteristics. = Fitness=20 describes the capability to survive independent of the = organism=92s=20 features. It is not surprising that natural selection converges on = optimal=20 fitness in mathematical modeling or when characterizing the = response of=20 bacteria to environmental stress. Yet, it does not follow that = convergence=20 to optimal fitness explains the improbable convergence of = morphological=20 features. Second, what is true for bacterial communities (single = cell=20 organisms that are morphologically nondescript, comprised of large = population sizes, and short generation times) is not necessarily = true for=20 the advanced multi-cellular organisms that have been shown to = display=20 =93repeatable=94 evolution.³³ The population and = reproductive=20 characteristics of these advanced, complex organisms preclude = their=20 capability to evolve.

Another attempt to account for =93repeatable=94 evolution = within the=20 evolutionary paradigm is based on inherent biological and = developmental=20 constraints.³⁴ The idea is that these constraints = only=20 allow certain variations to occur in the evolutionary = process. When=20 evolution occurs, then, it can only produce a limited number of = ecomorphs,=20 therefore the same ecomorphs result repeatedly. This explanation = falls=20 short. Developmental and inherent biological constraints would = have no=20 =93knowledge=94 of the environmental, predatory, or competitive = pressures=20 facing the organism. Therefore, one would not expect there to be=20 ecomorphs. In the face of this explanation one must ask, =93Why do = we see=20 organisms that are perfectly suited to their ecological niche?=94 = The=20 universal occurrence of perfect adaptation is inconsistent with = any=20 limitations on biological variation.

Conclusion

Prior to the influence of Charles Darwin (Origin of = Species was=20 first published in 1859) scientists viewed the nature of the = similarities=20 among organisms as due to the variation of a fundamental design or = archetype.³⁵ This =93blueprint=94 for life was = acknowledged as=20 having come directly from the mind of God. Organisms classified = within a=20 particular grouping were viewed as variations of the design = provided by=20 the Creator.

When the tide began to shift toward Darwinian evolution, = however,=20 biologists came to understand the relationships among organisms as = reflecting descent with modification from a common ancestor. The = ancestral=20 species that gave rise to a group of related organisms replaced = the=20 archetype, and natural selection operating on random biological = variation=20 replaced the creative hand of God.

As both evolutionists and creationists seek to account for the = features=20 found in the biological realms, different predictions flow = consequentially=20 from these explanations. Chance and a historical sequence of = events=20 control biological evolution, at its essence. One would expect = therefore,=20 few, if any, instances in which the evolutionary process would = repeat=20 itself. On the other hand, if a single Creator were responsible = for life=20 on earth, one would expect to see recurrent design throughout = nature.

The widespread availability of molecular systematics now allows = scientists to test these two interpretations of nature. As = molecular=20 systematics is used increasingly to characterize the relationship = among=20 organisms=96=96both living and extinct=96=96numerous examples of = morphologically=20 identical and genetically distinct groups are being uncovered. The = widespread occurrence of repeatable evolution cannot be = accommodated=20 within the evolutionary paradigm. Any attempt to account for this=20 phenomenon from a naturalistic standpoint violates the very nature = of the=20 evolutionary process or has implications that are inconsistent = with what=20 biologists observe in nature.

The evolutionary paradigm fails in the face of the discovery of = =93repeatable=94 evolution while biblical creation gains support = from this=20 phenomenon. What is interpreted as =93repeatable=94 = evolution=96=96morphologically=20 indistinct and genetically unique organisms=96=96is what one would = expect if a=20 single Creator has generated life throughout earth=92s history. As = time goes=20 on, scientists expect to see more examples of =93repeatable=94 = evolution. Each=20 new discovery of this phenomenon weakens the evolutionary paradigm = and=20 strengthens the case for creation.

References:

Stephen J. Gould, Wonderful Life: The Burgess Shale and = the=20 Nature of History (New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Company, = 1989),=20 51.=20
Gould, 48.=20
John Cafferky, Evolution=92s Hand: Searching for = the Creator=20 in Contemporary Science (Toronto, Canada: East End Books, = 1997,)=20 66-69.=20
Jonathan B. Losos and Kevin de Querioz, =93Darwin=92s = Lizards,=94=20 Natural History, December /January, (1997/1998): 34-37.
Jonathan B. Losos, et al., =93Contingency and Determinism in = Replicated Adaptive Radiations of Island Lizards,=94 = Science 279=20 (1998): 2115-2118.=20
Losos, et al., 2115-2118.=20
Paul H. Harvey and Linda Partridge, =93Different Routes to = Similar=20 Ends,=94 Nature 392 (1998): 552-553.=20
Frankly Bossuyt and Michel C. Milinkovitch, =93Convergent = Adaptive=20 Radiations in Madagascar and Asian Ranid Frogs Reveal = Co-Variation=20 Between Larval and Adult Frogs,=94 Proceedings of the = National Academy=20 of Sciences, USA 97 (2000): 6585-6590.=20
Bossuyt and Milinkovitch, 6585-6590.=20
Bossuyt and Milinkovitch, 6585-6590.=20
Melanie L.J. Stiassny and Axel Meyer, =93Cichlids of the = Rift Lakes,=94=20 Scientific American, February (1999): 64-69.=20
Erik Verhegen et. al., =93Mitochondrial Phylogeography of=20 Rock-Dwelling Cichlid Fishes Reveals Evolutionary Influence of=20 Historical Lake Level Fluctuations of Lake Tanganyika, = Africa,=94=20 Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London = B 351=20 (1996): 797-805.=20
Stiassny and Meyer, 64-69.=20
Verheyen et al., 797-805. =20
Axel Meyer et. al., =93Monophyletic Origin of Lake Victoria = Cichlid=20 Fishes Suggested by Mitochondrial DNA Sequences,=94 = Nature 347=20 (1990): 550-553.=20
John C. Arise, =93Flocks of African Fishes,=94 Nature = 347 (1990):=20 512-513.=20
Axel Meyer, =93Phylogenetic Relationships and Evolutionary = Processes=20 in East African Cichlid Fishes,=94 Trends in Ecology and = Evolution=20 8 (1993): 279-284.=20
Ulrich K. Schliewen, et. al., =93Sympatric Speciation = Suggested by=20 Monophyly of Crater Lake Cichlids,=94 Nature 368 (1994): = 629-632.=20
Lukos Ruber et. al., =93Replicated Evolution of Trophic=20 Specializations in an Endemic Cichlid Fish Lineage from Lake=20 Tanganyika,=94 Proceedings of the Natural Academy of = Sciences, USA=20 96 (1999): 10230-10235.=20
Elizabeth Pennisi, =93Nature Steers a Predictable Course,=94 = Science 287 (2000): 207-208.=20
Eric B. Taylor and J.D. McPhail, =93Evolutionary History of = an=20 Adaptive Radiation in Species Pairs of Threespine Sticklebacks=20 (Gasterosteus): Insights from Mitochondrial DNA,=94 = Biological=20 Journal of the Linnean Society 66 (1999): 271-291.=20
Howard D. Randle, et. al., =93Natural Selection and Parallel = Speciation in Sympatric Sticklebacks,=94 Science 287 = (2000):=20 306-308.=20
John E. Cronin and Vincent M. Sarich, =93Molecular Evidence = for Dual=20 Origins of Mangabeys Among Old World Monkeys,=94 Nature = 260 (1976):=20 700-702.=20
Todd R. Disotell, et. al., =93Mitochondrial DNA Phylogeny of = the Old=20 World Monkey Tribe Papionini,=94 Molecular Biology and = Evolution 9=20 (1992): 1-13.=20
Eugene E. Harris and Todd R. Disotell, =93Nuclear Gene Trees = and the=20 Phylogenetic Relationships of Mangabeys (Primates: = Papionini),=94=20 Molecular Biology and Evolution 15 (1998): 892-900.=20
Harris and Disotell, 892-900.=20
John G. Heagle and W. Scott McGraw, =93Skeletal and Dental = Morphology=20 Supports Diphyletic Origins of Baboons and Mandrills,=94 = Proceedings of=20 the National Academy of Sciences, USA 96 (1999): 1157-1161.=20
Insa Cassens et. al., =93Independent Adaptation to Riverine = Habitats=20 Allowed Survival of Ancient Cetacean Lineages,=94 Proceedings of = the=20 National Academies of Sciences, USA 97 (2000): 11343-11347.=20
Kathryn S. Brown, =93Why Woodiness?,=94 Natural History,=20 December/January (1999/2000): 74-77.=20
Jose L. Panero, et. al., =93Molecular Evidence for Multiple = Origins of=20 Woodiness and a New World Biogeographic Connection of the = Macroneasian=20 Island Endemic Pericallis (Asteraceae: Senecimeae)=94 = Proceedings of the=20 National Academy of Sciences, USA 96 (1999): 13886-13891.=20
Losos, et. al., 2115-2118.=20
Michael Travisano et. al. =93Experimental Test of the Roles = of=20 Adaptation, Chance and History in Evolution,=94 Science 276 = (1995): 87-90.=20
Hugh Ross, =93How Speciation =93Rules=94 Rule Out = Darwinism,=94 Facts for=20 Faith 1, no. 2 (2000): 56-57.=20
David B. Wake, =93Homoplasy: The Result of Natural = Selection, or=20 Evidence of Design Limitations?,=94 American Naturalist 138 = (1991):=20 543-567.=20
Michael Denton, Evolution: A Theory in Crisis (Bethesda, MD: = Adler=20 & Adler, 1985,) 93-117.

Bob=20 Stewart: Soldier, Astronaut, and Compelling Apologist

By Elaine Ervin

General Robert L. Stewart, a decorated Army combat pilot, test = pilot,=20 and former astronaut, has flown 38 types of airplanes and = helicopters.=20 Born in Washington D.C. and raised in Alabama, he received his = bachelor=92s=20 degree in mathematics from the University of Southern Mississippi, = and a=20 master=92s degree in aeronautical engineering from the University = of Texas=20 at Arlington. He served his country in Vietnam, where he flew = UH1-B=20 gunships and saw comrades fall in battle. He earned numerous = medals,=20 including two Purple Hearts, four Distinguished Flying Crosses, a = Bronze=20 Star, and a Meritorious Service Medal. After the war he flew = cutting-edge,=20 experimental aircraft and completed Army aviation programs that = prepared=20 him for selection as a NASA astronaut. He flew on the shuttles=20 Challenger and Atlantis, and was one of two men who = first=20 walked in space without a tether. A member of Reasons To = Believe=92s=20 Speakers Bureau, General Stewart has blended his scientific and = military=20 training with a calling to ministry by making apologetics = presentations=20 throughout the world.

FfF: You=92ve lived an exciting and dangerous life. What was = it like=20 to fly armed helicopters in Vietnam?

General Stewart: In Vietnam it got to where I feared the = words,=20 "Sir, you've got to see this," because one time I had a crack in = the pitch=20 change horn (the linkage which controls the main rotor). That = pitch change=20 horn should never have held together, but it did. If I had ever = lost that=20 pitch change horn, I would have lost control of the vehicle, and = we would=20 have all died. Another time the 42-degree gearbox was shot out. = The gears=20 should have seized but didn't.

Having been in constant danger, did you think about life and = death?

Before I became a Christian death was something that I wanted = to avoid,=20 but I didn't fear it. Now I know that if I had been killed in = Vietnam, or=20 had I been killed in an accident as a test pilot, then I would = have had to=20 spend an eternity away from God.

Did this realization bring you to faith in Christ?

No. That realization came afterward. During the war I was = determined=20 that I would not be a "foxhole Christian." I was at such a point = in my=20 life that I said that this is not going to drive me to believe = something=20 just to take out a "fire insurance policy" on my own soul. My = conversion=20 came years later.

Tell us about it.

One day my daughter was bitten by a squirrel that she had been = feeding=20 by hand. Squirrels have been known to carry rabies, of course, so = my wife=20 [Mary] and I immediately consulted the NASA doctors. We were told = that the=20 chances of contracting rabies were remote so we opted not to treat = her. On=20 the morning I had to leave Houston for Denver to train for an = aspect of my=20 first space flight, my daughter awoke with a high fever and a very = sore=20 throat=96=96two possible symptoms for rabies! As I flew to Denver, = I couldn=92t=20 get it out of my head that I might have killed my daughter. When I = got to=20 Denver and checked into my motel, I was distraught with fear = because it=20 wasn=92t my life at risk but that of my daughter. I said my first = real=20 prayer: =93God, if you are really there, I don=92t know why you = want my=20 daughter now, but please don=92t take her that way.=94 I called = home to find=20 that Jenny [my daughter] was fine, the fever had broken, and the = sore=20 throat was gone. I then got down on my knees and said, =93Thank = you, Lord,=20 now what will you have me do?=94 I realized that all those times I = should=20 have been dead [in Vietnam], it was He who was with me even though = I=20 refused to acknowledge Him.

People are fascinated with the many aspects of space travel. = Describe some of the sensations of the launch.

You are enveloped in a noise and vibration far beyond your = training, as=20 over seven million pounds of thrust hurl you off the pad. = Astronauts are=20 trained to know the character of the event but cannot be trained = to its=20 true magnitude. It is a noise that is felt more than heard=BEa = sharp,=20 staccato noise that hammers directly at the core of your being! = Once in=20 space, your second impression is =93Boy, are we going fast.=94 In = an airliner=20 you travel at 500 mph, 40,000 feet above ground, and it hardly = seems like=20 you=92re moving. In a shuttle, however, at speeds over 17,000 mph, = you know=20 you are smoking along!

You=92re one of very few people who has seen the earth from = the unique=20 perspective of space. Can you describe it for us?

Your first view of the home planet is breathtaking. Maybe = that=92s how=20 God intended it to be viewed. You see the lovely azure of the = Atlantic=20 overlaid by the pristine white of swirling clouds, and here comes = the=20 green of Africa, the whole floating in a velvety black universe. = The=20 colors come alive, and the visible detail is far beyond that which = can be=20 brought back on film or tape. It is truly an experience that = borders on=20 indescribable.

After having spent some time in space, what does it feel = like to be=20 back home?

The thing that you notice right away is the oppressive feeling = of=20 gravity. On one of my flights, we landed on a Saturday. I got up = Sunday=20 morning to go to Sunday school and almost couldn't walk because I = was=20 stumbling over my feet. I found that the way that I got to the = floor was=20 completely different. In space, I actually had to pull myself to = the=20 floor, using one set of muscles, whereas on Earth you relax = muscles and=20 gravity pulls you down. There is a little bit of muscular weakness = but not=20 any worse than if you got sick for a week and had to stay in = bed.

How did you become involved with Reasons To Believe?

I had been teaching a Sunday school class here at High View = Baptist=20 Church in Woodland Park [Colorado], and the class had decided that = they=20 wanted to study Genesis. So I began research into Genesis with = scientific=20 as well as religious publications. One of the books that I came = across was=20 Dr. Ross' The Creator and the Cosmos. The more I read [of = Dr. Ross=92=20 books], the more fascinated I became. The books became a part of = my class.=20 Then, I went to the Web site where I learned about RTB=92s = apologetics=20 course. I applied, and the rest, as they say, is history.

What do you hope to communicate as a Christian = apologist?

The message I hope to get across is that you don=92t have to = give up your=20 intellect to be a Christian. I am afraid that the church in the = past has=20 evangelized only the third world. It seems that the poor and the = poorly=20 educated have received priority in church evangelism because they = are the=20 easy problem. It gets harder to reach a person for Christ when = that person=20 is highly educated and sure of the primacy of science in this = world.=20 Reasons to Believe is the first organization I know of that = attempts to=20 tell those people that there is no conflict between religion and = science.=20 They both use their own peculiar language to communicate the same = eternal=20 truths: that this universe was brought into existence out of = nothingness;=20 that it is especially fine-tuned for the existence of life on this = rare,=20 if not unique planet; and that God did it.

How do you approach this challenge?

I try to learn as much as I can about the Scriptures and about = science=20 so that I can communicate at whatever level is required to advance = the=20 good news of Jesus Christ. I learned from [the apostle] Paul that = you have=20 to approach people where they are if communication is to take = place. When=20 I began to teach Genesis in my Sunday school class, I led off with = a=20 primer on relativity so my class could see the historical and = logical=20 background of this theory and lose their fear of it. This was = necessary=20 because I intended to talk about the creation event in terms of = the big=20 bang, and I wanted my class to understand that this was not just = something=20 physicists thought up in a vacuum. I wanted to approach the = existence of=20 human beings on this planet from the standpoint of their unique=20 relationship to the Creator and back that up with some modern = numerical=20 biology statistics concerning the probabilities of life existing = at=20 all from random processes.

I hope to continue to challenge the person who is = scientifically=20 oriented with the idea that life would be prohibitively unlikely = unless it=20 were created by God. I also hope to reassure those not conversant = with=20 modern science that the truth of the Scriptures is still intact = and even=20 stronger as a result of real, objective science.

In my life I have made a remarkable transition from a person = whose=20 faith was in science to the exclusion of religion, = to being=20 a person who holds the Scriptures to be truth with science just = catching=20 up after 4000 years.

God=92s Plan for=20 Humanity=97Paradise Restored or Paradise = Replaced?

By Hugh Ross and Mick Ukleja

Christians argue and divide over many issues, from core issues = such as=20 the doctrine of free will to peripheral issues such as the age of = the=20 Earth. Ironically, some of the least weighty questions draw the = most=20 vigorous public debate while the more important ones receive less=20 attention. One of these ignored controversies has significant = implications=20 for worldview, a question that either lumps Christianity with = other=20 theistic and deistic religions or sets it distinctly apart.

The many-faceted question is this: What is the Creator=92s = ultimate plan=20 for humanity? Is it a grand scale restoration of the Garden of = Eden, i.e.,=20 a terrestrial paradise, or is it an entirely =93new=94 creation = beyond the=20 confines of the universe? What is the =93heaven=94 awaiting those = who receive=20 His offer of eternal salvation?

A consideration of the big picture, a look at what God=92s Word = says in=20 answer to this set of questions, can shed invaluable light on the = subject=20 of creation and focus attention on the issues that matter most. = How one=20 thinks about the future helps shape his or her response to current = and=20 past events.

The book of Revelation offers the best starting place for such = an=20 inquiry. In fact, its final chapters may be the best place for a = person to=20 begin reading Scripture. Rather than killing suspense, this = end-first=20 reading of the story quells fear and gives birth to a lively, = healthy=20 hope. And hope, according to Romans 5:3-5 and 1 John 3:3, carries = us=20 through the difficulties of our sin-marred existence and keeps us = going=20 through God=92s purification process.

Redemption=92s story culminates in this triumphant shout: = =93Now the=20 dwelling of God is with men, and he will live with them. They will = be his=20 people, and God himself will be with them and be their God. He = will wipe=20 every tear from their eyes. There will be no more death or = mourning or=20 crying or pain, for the old order of things has passed away=94 = (Rev.=20 21:3-4).

In what context does redeemed humanity enjoy the glories of=20 face-to-face fellowship with God? Is it here on this planet, in = this=20 universe? Again, Scripture gives the answer. Revelation 21 = identifies our=20 destination as the =93new heaven and new earth, for the first = heaven and the=20 first earth had passed away. . . .=94 The King of Kings = declares, =93I=20 am making everything new!=94 Most of the chapter is devoted to a=20 mind-boggling description of the Holy City, the New Jerusalem. Its = magnificent features not only stretch the limits of human = imagination but=20 also reveal that familiar physical laws exist no more.

In this passage God gives a preview of the fulfillment of = Romans=20 8:22-23. The whole =93groaning=94 creation=97its time and space, = matter and=20 energy, and =93we ourselves, who have the first fruits of the=20 Spirit=94=97receives deliverance from =93bondage to decay.=94 This = is the moment=20 of our =93adoption as sons, the redemption of our bodies.=94

Humanity=92s deliverance from death and decay is the focal = point of the=20 passage; however, the reference does encompass the entire physical = universe, to which space, time, matter, and energy belong. The = passage=20 would seem to suggest, then, that the deliverance applies even to = the=20 physical laws, which began in effect at the cosmic creation event. = They=20 are, thus, finite and the One who created them brings them to an = end as=20 soon as their purpose is fulfilled.

To say that the universe and its thermodynamic laws are eternal = is to=20 contradict both Scripture and the record of nature. To say that = Adam and=20 Eve=92s sin introduced those laws is to overlook three biblical = doctrines.=20 First, rebellion against God=92s authority, i. e., =93sin,=94 = existed prior to=20 Adam=92s rebellion in Eden. The Bible does not record = exactly when=20 Satan sinned, but that event certainly predates his invasion of = Eden. It=20 could have occurred before Earth was formed. Job 38:7 says that = the=20 angels, of whom Lucifer was one, were witnesses to God=92s laying = the=20 foundations of the earth.

Second, God decided to allow Satan=92s entrance to Eden. The = doctrine of=20 God=92s omnipotence and omniscience leads to the conclusion that = He had a=20 plan for using Adam and Eve=92s tragic rebellion, with all its = horrific=20 effects, to bring about a greater and better future than even the = wonders=20 of Eden could afford.

Third, whatever the timing of Satan=92s rebellion, God created = the=20 universe knowing that Satan would be the first to sin. = Consequently, the=20 universe He designed would be a universe perfectly suited to bring = about=20 the glorious victory He planned. In other words, He made a = universe=20 governed by the second law of thermodynamics (and other laws) = wherein=20 humans would be tested by Satan but with the possibility of being=20 permanently rescued from Satan=92s grasp by God=92s conquering = love and=20 grace.

The precipitating event, the time marker, for the climactic = =93adoption=94=20 event is described in the final paragraphs of Revelation 20. Satan = and his=20 henchmen have been sent to their inescapable doom, and their = captives=20 stand before God=92s judgment seat to receive the penalty, which = they insist=20 on paying, for their pseudo autonomy. In other words, God=92s = conquest of=20 evil, which was =93finished=94 on Calvary=92s cross, has at this = point been=20 fully carried out. This is in part an answer to the question, if = there is=20 an all-loving God then why does evil exist? The answer is that = evil is in=20 the process of being defeated, and humankind has the privilege of=20 partnering with God in that battle to conquer evil. The result is = that one=20 day all that which is evil=96=96everything that is = irredeemable=96=96will be=20 quarantined in a place called =93Hell.=94 The result is that the = new creation=20 will be eternally secure. Temptation=92s source can no longer come = into=20 contact with the creatures God made for His own eternal = delight.

One can reasonably infer that God=92s plan and purpose for the = creation,=20 as described in Genesis 1 and amplified elsewhere in Scripture, = has been=20 accomplished. That plan involves the conquest of evil, which was=20 introduced not at the time of Adam and Eve=92s fall into = sin but=20 rather when Lucifer rebelled. Sin and its consequences came to = humanity=20 when the first humans gave in to the serpent=92s temptation. And = those=20 consequences were, and still are, devastating.

The biblical worldview we propose says that Adam and Eve=92s = fall into=20 sin radically changed the human race, impacting the entire planet. = It did=20 not, however, change all the physical laws of the cosmos. Genesis = 2=20 explicitly states that Adam worked physically and ate earthly food = before=20 he sinned. Such work=97including the digestion process=97implies = that gravity=20 and thermodynamics, for example, were in effect before the fall, = as they=20 are today. The existence of stars, including the sun, also implies = the=20 operation of thermodynamic laws.¹

Work and the possibility of physical pain did not come as part = of the=20 curse God pronounced at the time of Adam and Eve=92s sin. God = designed=20 productive work to be satisfying, enjoyable.² He gave = Adam and=20 Eve a job before they committed any sin.³ Sin, however, = destroyed both the productivity and joy of their work. This = destruction=20 still makes work frustrating and painful.

Physical pain is a necessary partner to physical pleasure. Such = pain=20 also warns of impending danger. The capacity for pain, then, = cannot be=20 considered a bad thing. The introduction of sin means that we all=20 experience more pain than would otherwise be necessary. = Furthermore, it=20 introduces an entirely new and more excruciating kind of = pain=97spiritual=20 and emotional pain. When a woman suffers to give birth to a child, = her=20 greatest pain comes from the heart-rending awareness that this = little=20 person, to whom her heart is inextricably attached, must = experience the=20 awful effects of sin, both within and without.⁴ Such = pain=20 completely overshadows the physical pain of childbearing.

The end of that pain, the enactment of God=92s judgment against = it at the=20 Great White Throne, comes with the end of the physical universe as = we know=20 it. Revelation is not the only portion of Scripture in which this = point is=20 made. The Psalmist declares:

In the beginning you laid the foundations of the earth,
and = the=20 heavens are the work of your hands.
They will perish, but you=20 remain;
they will all wear out like a garment.
Like clothing = you=20 will change them
and they will be discarded.⁵

Isaiah says that =93all the stars of the heavens will be=20 dissolved,=94⁶ that =93the heavens will vanish like=20 smoke,=94⁷ that God =93will create new heavens and a = new=20 earth,=94⁸ and that =93the former things will not be = remembered,=20 nor will they come to mind.=94⁹ Jesus proclaims that = =93heaven and=20 earth will pass away.=94¹⁰ The author of the book of = Hebrews=20 quotes directly from the Psalm above.¹¹ Peter = explains:

Long ago by God=92s word the heavens existed and the earth was = formed. .=20 . . By the same word the present heavens and earth are reserved = for fire,=20 being kept for the day of judgment and destruction of ungodly men. = . . .=20 The heavens will disappear with a roar; the elements will be = destroyed by=20 fire. . . . Everything will be destroyed in this way. . . . That = day will=20 bring about the destruction of the heavens by fire, and the = elements will=20 melt in the heat. But in keeping with His promise we are looking = forward=20 to a new heaven and a new earth, the home of=20 righteousness.¹²

When Christ takes His seat to judge Earth=92s rebels, the earth = and the=20 sky =93flee=94 from His presence.¹³ Obviously this seat = exists=20 beyond the confines of =93the heavens and the earth=94 mentioned = in Genesis=20 1:1. Living beings, angels and humans, remain alive in place = beyond the=20 =93very good=94 Earth. Some go to the place of =93second = death,=94¹⁴=20 and some remain in the glorious presence of God. At this point, = God has no=20 more use for this planet and cosmos.

Just how new is the new creation? It is more than just a remake = or=20 renovation of the old creation. It is completely and radically = new. The=20 laws of gravity, electromagnetism, and thermodynamics are gone. = The text=20 directly claims that everything associated with the second law of=20 thermodynamics (decay, death, pain, etc.) never again = exists.¹⁵=20 Gravity as we know it no longer exists. (Gravity does not allow a=20 structure of the dimensions ascribed to the New Jerusalem. Gravity = would=20 force it into a spherical shape.)¹⁶ Electromagnetism as = we know=20 it no longer exists, for light in an electromagnetic environment = coexists=20 with darkness and shadows. The new creation will be filled with = =93light=94=20 without any darkness or shadows and without such entities as the = sun,=20 stars, and light bulbs as sources of = illumination.¹⁷

What can be said, then, of Old Testament verses that seem to = suggest=20 the Earth and universe last forever? The interpretation we proffer = must=20 account for the following passages:

He set them [the sun, moon, stars, highest heavens and waters = above the=20 skies] forever and ever. (Psalm 148:6)

I know that everything God does will endure forever; nothing = can be=20 added to it and nothing taken from it. (Ecclesiastes 3:14)

[Those] who lead many to righteousness [will shine] like the = stars for=20 ever and ever. (Daniel 12:3)

[God=92s] work has been finished since the creation of the = world.=20 (Hebrews 4:3)

The Hebrew word translated as =93forever=94 in Psalm 148:6 = (also in=20 Ecclesiastes 3:14, and Daniel 12:3) is olam. In Psalm 148:6 = and=20 Daniel 12:3, the Hebrew word =91ad is included in the = phrase as well.=20 These words carry slightly different meanings in different = contexts=20 (unlike the Greek word for =93forever=94), and one of their = literal meanings=20 is a =93long continuance into the future.=94¹⁸ In the = light of the=20 rest of Scripture, that meaning seems to apply here.

Many Bible scholars view Ecclesiastes 3:14 and Hebrews 4:3 as=20 declarations of God=92s sovereign, immutable plan for humanity. In = other=20 words, God=92s has determined what He will do and nothing can = change that.=20 As for Daniel 12:3, the shining =93forever=94 seems in the context = of the=20 larger passage to describe =93those who lead many to = righteousness.=94

Better Than Eden¹⁹

One argument for a completely and radically new creation comes = from 1=20 Corinthians 2:9. In this passage Paul explains that no human can = =93conceive=20 or imagine what God has prepared for those who love Him.=94 = Imagining or=20 visualizing phenomena within the laws of physics and space-time = dimensions=20 of our universe certainly is possible. We can picture, at = least in=20 a limited way, what Eden, or a renewed earth might be like if we = could go=20 there, but we humans simply cannot picture life in a realm beyond = the=20 dimensions and physical laws of our universe.

God has promised to His believers a reward far beyond what = anyone, no=20 matter how spiritual or imaginative, can conceive. Moreover, the = doctrine=20 of heaven is one of the chief distinctions between Christianity = and other=20 belief systems. Many cults, for example, promise an Earth-bound = (or=20 planet-bound) paradise replete with physical pleasures, including = sexual=20 pleasure; Christianity promises deliverance from earthly paradise, = no=20 matter how magnificently restored its condition. In one sense, any = earthly=20 paradise may be compared with Egypt in Moses=92 time. It was a = land of=20 splendor and plenty but also a land of slavery.

Slavery of one kind or another is inherently associated with = the laws=20 of thermodynamics. If we eliminate the law of entropy, for = example, we=20 have not eliminated all decay in the universe. As people age, they = observe=20 that certain body parts begin to lose the battle with gravity. = Skin breaks=20 down under long-term exposure to electromagnetic radiation.

Perhaps the most significant aspect of Eden=92s slavery has to = do with=20 time. Our original parents were confined, as we humans still are, = to a=20 single time dimension. Time=92s forward march can be neither = stopped nor=20 reversed. This time line limits each one of us to just a few close = relationships in our lifetime. In fact, the deepest level of = intimacy=20 possible in this creation, inside or outside Eden, can be = experienced with=20 only one fellow human at a time. For this reason God gave us = marriage,=20 monogamous marriage.

Jesus tells His followers that in the new creation there will = be no=20 marriage and, evidently, no sexual relationships or nuclear=20 families.²⁰The relationship all believers will enjoy = with=20 Christ and with each other is likened to a marriage. Jesus often = refers to=20 believers in the new creation with singular nouns and=20 pronouns.²¹ We are, He says, His bride, and we all will = be one=20 as He and the Father (and of course the Holy Spirit) are one. The = oneness=20 of the Godhead implies that the Father, Son, and Spirit are in = continuous=20 communication and fellowship with one another. For us to = experience a=20 comparable kind of oneness we, too, must be in continuous = communication=20 and fellowship with one another and with Him. Somehow, the new = creation=20 will allow us to communicate and relate intimately with billions = of others=20 all at once and always in perfect harmony.

Given this new capacity for knowing and being known, for loving = and=20 being loved, our need and desire for marriage and family are more = than=20 fully met. According to God=92s promise, we will continuously = enjoy=20 something superior to the pleasures of the very best earthly=20 relationships, including marriage, with all fellow believers=20 simultaneously. Whatever responsibilities He assigns to us will be = fulfilled with complete and unhindered joy. Just as this universe = was=20 designed for the purpose of Redemption, the new creation is = designed for=20 Reward.²² In fact, even our limited comprehension of = the place=20 He is preparing for us gives new meaning to that word.

References:

Job 38:33.=20
Ecclesiastes 3:13.=20
Genesis 1:28.=20
Genesis 3:16.=20
Psalm 102:25-26.=20
Isaiah 34:4.=20
Isaiah 51:6.=20
Isaiah 66:22.=20
Isaiah 65:17.=20
Matthew 24:35.=20
Hebrews 1:10-12.=20
2 Peter 3:5-13.=20
Revelation 20:11.=20
Revelation 20:14.=20
Revelation 21:4.=20
Revelation 21:16-17.=20
Revelation 21:23, 22:4.=20
R. Laird Harris, Gleason L. Archer, Jr., and Bruce K. = Waltke,=20 Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament, v. 2 (Chicago: = Moody=20 Press, 1981), 673.=20
See Hugh Ross, chapter 17 in Beyond the Cosmos,=20 2^nd ed. (Colorado Springs, CO: NavPress, 1999).=20
Matthew 22:29-30; Luke 20:34-35.=20
John 17:11, Romans 12:5, 15:5-6, Revelation 21:9-27.
Matthew 5:12, 16:27; Luke 6:23, 35; 1 Corinthians 3:14; = Ephesians=20 6:8; Colossians 3:24; Hebrews 11:26; Revelation 22:12. =

Convergence:=20 Evidence for a Single Creator

By Fazale (Fuz) R. Rana, Ph.D.

Closely related to the phenomenon of repeatable evolution is=20 convergence. Convergence refers to the widespread tendency in = nature of=20 unrelated organisms to possess nearly identical anatomical and=20 physiological characteristics.¹ The wings of birds and = bats is=20 one textbook example of convergence. Birds and bats are = unrelated=20 organisms, with birds belonging to the class Aves and bats to the = class=20 Mammalia. Though superficially similar, the wing structures = of birds=20 and bats are fundamentally different. Another common example = of=20 convergence=BEone in which the fundamental structural differences = are not so=20 obvious=BEis the remarkable anatomical similarity shared by the = modern=20 placental wolf and the extinct Tasmanian wolf.²

Both the creation and evolutionary paradigms offer an = explanation for=20 convergence. Creationists view convergence as the intelligent = activity of=20 a single Creator who employs a common set of solutions to address = a common=20 set of problems facing unrelated organisms in their quest for = survival.=20 Evolutionists assert that convergence results when unrelated = organisms=20 encounter nearly identical selection forces (environmental, = competitive,=20 and predatory pressures). Natural selection then channels the = random=20 variations believed to be responsible for evolutionary change = along=20 similar pathways to produce similar features in unrelated=20 organisms.³

Since both the creation and evolutionary frameworks attempt to = explain=20 biological convergence, an analysis of this feature of nature can = be used=20 to evaluate the two paradigms. When critically assessed, the = evolutionary=20 paradigm is found to be woefully inadequate when accounting for = all the=20 facets of biological convergence. On the other hand, = biological=20 convergence is readily explained by an origins model that evokes a = single=20 Creator.

One of the challenges that convergence creates for the = evolutionary=20 paradigm is the frequency with which it occurs throughout life=92s = history.=20 Convergence is a common characteristic of life. This commonness = makes=20 little sense in light of evolutionary theory. If evolution is = indeed=20 responsible for the diversity of life, one would expect = convergence to be=20 extremely rare. The mechanism that drives the evolutionary = process=20 consists of a large number of unpredictable, chance events that = occur one=20 after another. Given this mechanism and the complexity and = fine-tuning of=20 biological systems, it seems improbable that disparate = evolutionary=20 pathways would ever lead to the same biological = feature.⁴

Two remarkable examples of complex biological features recently = recognized as being convergent are bat echolocation (the ability = of an=20 organism to orient itself based on perceiving reflections of sound = it=20 emits) and parrot, songbird, and hummingbird forebrain = structure. A=20 recent DNA sequence analysis has just confirmed two earlier = studies that,=20 from an evolutionary perspective, requires echolocation in bats to = have=20 evolved independently in two separate groups (microchiroptera and=20 megachiroptera).^{5, 6, 7} This study, along with = previous=20 analyses also indicate that the strikingly similar limb structures = of bats=20 and flying lemurs used for flying, likewise, must have evolved=20 independently, when the data is interpreted from an evolutionary=20 perspective.

Another recent study, employing behavioral differences in gene=20 expression in brain tissue, has demonstrated that the brain = structure of=20 hummingbirds, songbirds, and parrots responsible for vocal = learning (the=20 ability to =93learn=94 vocalizations by imitation rather than by = instinct) is=20 essentially identical.^{8, 9} This is surprising, = since=20 these three birds are unrelated to one another. That is, the seven = distinct structures in the forebrain of these three groups of = birds that=20 are responsible for vocal learning are convergent. From an = evolutionary=20 perspective, these structures must have evolved independently of = one=20 another on three separate occasions.

It is difficult to accept, even when biased towards naturalism, = that=20 the complex structures involved in bat echolocation, bat and lemur = flight,=20 and bird vocal learning could have emerged strictly through random = events.=20 However, the remarkable convergence just described would be = expected if a single Creator was responsible for creating = bats,=20 lemurs, parrots, songbirds, and hummingbirds.

Even more challenging for the evolutionist are the cases in = which=20 convergence occurs in organisms from radically different = environments.=20 Under these circumstances, the forces that comprise natural = selection must=20 be different by definition. The classic example of this type = of=20 convergence is found in the eye structure of the cephalopods = (nautili,=20 cuttlefish, squids, and octopods).¹⁰ Their = similarity to=20 vertebrate eyes is remarkable from an evolutionary perspective, = given that=20 1) mollusks, which include cephalopods, are classified as a member = of a=20 fundamentally different group (lophotrochozoan) than vertebrates=20 (deuterostomes)¹¹; and 2) the selective forces that = would have=20 shaped the formation of both the cephalopod eye and vertebrate eye = must=20 have been quite different. Evolution would have required an = aquatic=20 environment for the cephalopods and a primarily terrestrial = environment=20 for the vertebrates.

An even more remarkable example of convergence occurring in = aquatic and=20 terrestrial environments can be seen in the sandlance (fish) and = chameleon=20 (reptile), respectively. Recent experiments have uncovered = an=20 extraordinary similarity in the visual systems and behavior for = these two=20 creatures.^{12, 13, 14, 15} Both the chameleon and = the=20 sandlance move their eyes independent of one another in a jerky = manner,=20 rather than in concert. While one eye is in motion the other eye = is=20 motionless. Moreover, both animals use the cornea of the eye = to=20 focus on objects. All other reptiles and fish use the lens = of the=20 eye to focus images on the retina. The chameleon and sandlance = both rely=20 on a specialized muscle (the cornealis muscle) to adjust the = focusing of=20 the cornea. The chameleon determines depth perception using a = single eye.=20 Scientists believe the sandlance also determines depth perception = in this=20 manner. Both the sandlance and the chameleon have skin coverings = over=20 their eyes to prevent them from being conspicuous to both = predators and=20 prey. The feeding behavior of both animals is also the same. = The=20 trajectory that the chameleon tongue takes when attacking its prey = is the=20 same as that taken by the sandlance when it lunges for its prey. = (The=20 sandlance buries itself in sand beds with its eyes above the = surface of=20 the sand and waits for tiny crustaceans to pass by.)

The words of the team of researchers who were among the first = to=20 discover this convergence are compelling: =93When faced with a = beautifully=20 coordinated optical system such as this, it is a challenge to = provide an=20 explanation for the convergence of so many different finely-tuned=20 mechanisms.=94¹⁶

These examples highlight the difficulty that convergence = creates for=20 the evolutionary paradigm. No known evolutionary mechanism can = account for=20 the nature of biological convergence. Convergence has been far too = common=20 throughout life=92s history, has involved exceedingly complex = structures,=20 and has occurred in situations in which the forces of natural = selection=20 have been vastly different. Biological convergence is an = important=20 component in the argument that life, throughout earth=92s history, = is a=20 result of the supernatural activity of a Creator.

References:

Monroe W. Strickberger, Evolution, 3d ed., (Sunberg, MA: = Jones and=20 Bartlett Publishers, 2000), 632; 637.=20
Mark Ridley, Evolution, 2d ed. (Cambridge, MA: Blackwell = Science,=20 1996), 470-72.=20
Strickberger, 632; 637.=20
Kurt Wise, =93The Origin of Life=92s Major Groups,=94 in The = Creation=20 Hypothesis: Scientific Evidence for an Intelligent Designer, = J.P.=20 Moreland, ed. (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1994), = 212-15.=20
Emma C. Teeling et al., =93Molecular Evidence Regarding the = Origin of=20 Echolocation and Flight in Bats,=94 Nature 403 (2000): 188-92.=20
Dorothy E. Pumo et al., =93Complete Mitochondrial Genome of = a=20 Neotropical Fruit Bat, Artibues Jamaicensis, and a New = Hypothesis of the=20 Relationships of Bats to Other Eutherian Mammals,=94 Journal of = Molecular=20 Evolution 47 (1998): 709-17.=20
James M. Hutcheon et al., =93Base Compositional Biases and = the Bat=20 Problem III. The Question of Microchiropteran Monophyly,=94 = Philosophical=20 Transaction of the Royal Society of LondonB 353 (1998): 607-17.=20
Erich D. Jarvis et al., =93Behaviorally Driven Gene = Expression Reveals=20 Song Nuclei in Hummingbird Brain,=94 Nature 406 (2000): 628-32.=20
Annette Heist, =93Singing in the Brain,=94 Natural History, = October=20 (2000): 14-16.=20
Robert D. Barnes, Invertebrate Zoology, 3d ed., = (Philadelphia, PA:=20 W.B. Sanders Company, 1974), 424-27.=20
Anna Marie A. Aquinaldo and James A. Lake, =93Evolution of=20 Multicellular Animals,=94 American Zoologist 38 (1998): 878-87.=20
Mandyam V. Srinivasan, =93When One Eye Is Better Than = Two,=94 Nature 399=20 (1999): 305-07.=20
J.D. Pettigrew and S.P. Collin, =93Terrestrial Optics in an = Aquatic=20 Eye: The Sandlance, Limnichthytes fasciatus (Creediidae, = Teleostei),=94=20 Journal of Comparative Physiology A 177 (1995): 397-408.=20
John D. Pettigrew et al., =93Convergence of Specialised = Behavior, Eye=20 Movements and Visual Optics in the Sandlance (Teleostei) and = Chameleon=20 (Reptilia),=94 Current Biology 9 (1999): R286-88.=20
Kerstin A. Fritsches and Justin Marshall, =93A New Category = of Eye=20 Movements in a Small Fish,=94 Current Biology 9 (1999): R272-73. =
Pettigrew and Collin, 407.

The = Measurability of the=20 Universe=96=96a Record of the Creator=92s Design

By Guillermo Gonzalez

If the universe were not measurable, scientific study = would be=20 impossible. Astronomy, biology, chemistry, cosmology, geology, = physics,=20 and the other disciplines of science would be no less quixotic = than=20 alchemy or astrology. Science would not=97could not=97shed much = light in the=20 cosmic darkness.

Most scientists take the measurability of the physical realm = completely=20 for granted: It is measurable because scientists have found ways = to=20 measure it. Scientists (myself included) may take pride in our = ability to=20 make measurements=96=96especially those measurements requiring = ingenuity,=20 persistence, and skill=96=96but why take the universe=92s = measurability for=20 granted? Is there any deep significance to the measurability of = the=20 universe? The answer springs from the very foundations of science, = from=20 the philosophical assumptions (chiefly drawn from the=20 Judeo-Christian Scriptures¹) on which scientific = endeavor=20 rests. These assumptions include, among others, the existence of a = theory-independent external world, the existence of order in the = external=20 world, the reality of truth, the validity and reliability of the = laws of=20 logic and mathematics, the basic reliability of sense perception, = and the=20 adequacy of the human mind to comprehend the universe.²⁼²⁰ The Judeo-Christian vision of reality predicts a = unique=20 correspondence between the physical universe and the human = mind.

By identifying the aspects of measurability humans = cannot=20 influence or control, one can determine (at least roughly) whether = or not=20 the measurability of the universe requires supernatural = fine-tuning, and=20 if so, to what degree. This study begins with a look at the nearby = cosmos=20 and from there moves outward in space, backward in time.

The Measurability of the Earth

One of the characteristics that makes Earth such an ideal = =93recording=20 device=94 is its built-in set of time markers=96=96cyclical = rhythms on time=20 scales of days, months, seasons, years, centuries, periods, eras, = and=20 eons. Humanity could have found itself in a far less measurable = place. The=20 Moon, for example, does not have active weather, seasons, or = tectonics,=20 and therefore offers few time markers. The Moon looks ancient, yet = ageless. Jupiter and the other gas giants have active weather, but = they=20 lack any solid surface on which to record their rhythms and = events. The=20 thin crust of the Earth provides not only a safe and comfortable = place for=20 living creatures of all kinds, but it also serves as the = planet=92s=20 information storage space. The deep, hot interior of the planet, = the=20 atmosphere, and the oceans are all too fluid to preserve much of = the=20 past.

Earth=92s cycles provide the steady beat of time markers, with = other,=20 more subtle, fluctuations superimposed. Because of seasonal = changes in=20 weather and plant life in a given locale, growth and deposition = phenomena=20 leave easily distinguishable (and measurable) features. Growth = rings in=20 trees not only yield information on the rain and temperature for a = given=20 season, but they also provide a unique tool for measuring the = carbon-14=20 content of the atmosphere, which is modulated, in turn, by the = sunspot=20 cycle. Research on tree rings gives astronomers information about = solar=20 variations on a wide range of time scales, from decades to = millennia.

Snow deposits in Greenland and Antarctica have created a four=20 hundred-thousand-year record of the composition of Earth=92s=20 atmosphere.³ Ancient air bubbles trapped within these = deposits=20 allow us to measure the concentration of carbon dioxide and other = gases in=20 past eras. The snow deposits give us a measure of ancient dust = levels,=20 which are indicative of large volcanic eruptions or very dry = conditions.=20 They also enable us to measure the ratios of three oxygen = isotopes, which=20 indicate the mean global temperature in past epochs. According to = a very=20 recent study, nitrate spikes in Antarctic ice deposits may help us = trace=20 supernova events (gigantic star explosions) of the past thousand=20 years.

Certain features of the ocean floor allow us an even = longer-range view,=20 hundreds of millions of years back into Earth=92s history. At the = mid-ocean=20 ridges (=93spreading centers=94), new sea floor is produced when = molten rock=20 upwells from the hot mantle below. When the molten rock solidifies = it=20 records the state of the earth=92s magnetic field at that time. By = studying=20 these sea-floor records at varying distances from the spreading = centers,=20 oceanographers can =93read=94 the history of fluctuations in = Earth=92s magnetic=20 field. A phenomenon so subtle as to be unnoticeable in everyday = life is=20 reliably recorded and preserved for later discovery and = deciphering.

Ancient =93tidalites=94 (tidal sediment layers) and coral, = mollusk, and=20 stromatolite growth layers record the lunar and solar tidal = cycles, giving=20 us unique data on the length of terrestrial days and lunar months = in=20 ancient times. Such data tell us that 500 million years ago, a day = was=20 about 20 hours long and a month was about 27.5 (present-epoch)=20 days.⁴

Meteorites that have hit the earth provide another treasure = trove of=20 data (preserved for billions of years) waiting to be unlocked. = Many=20 meteorites come from the asteroid belt, where collisions between = asteroids=20 send shards hurtling throughout the inner solar system (planets = from Mars=20 inward) and occasionally to the earth. Fragments falling on the = ice fields=20 of Antarctica are the best preserved ones, and their dark = appearance makes=20 them easy to distinguish against the uniform blue-white = background. Today,=20 a meteorite=92s individual grains, each measuring less than a = millimeter in=20 width, can be separately analyzed. These grains yield invaluable = clues to=20 the sources of short-lived (now extinct) =93radionuclides=94 = present in the=20 gas-and-dust cloud from which our sun and solar system formed. = They also=20 give us clues to the timing of certain key events in the formation = of=20 neighboring planets.

Even more amazing is the discovery that meteorites carry what = appear to=20 be individual interstellar dust grains, each from a different star = that=20 existed before the Sun. These dust particles give us rare and = important=20 data on the chemical history of the Milky Way. It appears that as = part of=20 God=92s grand design of the cosmos, He has provided a method of = collecting,=20 preserving, and delivering to our doorstep tiny bits of distant = (both in=20 the spatial and temporal sense) stars. What more could an = astronomer ask=20 for?

On a less grand scale, small bits of the moon and Mars have = been=20 blasted to the earth by large impacts. The most famous of these is = the=20 Martian meteorite, ALH 84001 that stirred much media attention a = few years=20 ago. The Moon probably contains a rich reserve of unaltered planet = shards=20 from the early history of the solar system. One might think of the = Moon as=20 the earth=92s attic, where ancient artifacts are stored and = forgotten,=20 perhaps to be retrieved one day.

The Measurability of the Sun

Total eclipses of the Sun as seen from the surface of the earth = may be=20 described as both =93useful=94 and =93exceptional.=94⁵ = Apart from the=20 deep awe they inspire in every people group from remote tribes to=20 astrophysicists, these eclipses allow us to study the Sun=92s = corona, test=20 general relativity, and calculate the slowdown of the earth=92s = rotation.=20 They are exceptional in that they are nearly =93perfect;=94 that = is, the earth=20 and Moon are similar in size, the solar and lunar profiles on the = sky are=20 nearly perfect circles, and the Sun appears to be larger when it = is viewed=20 from Earth than when it is viewed from any other planet with = moons. The=20 likelihood of finding this combination of features is remote. Of = the=20 roughly 65 natural satellites (moons) in the solar system, none = even comes=20 close to producing such clear and spectacular eclipses.

What=92s more, humans live at a special time with respect to = the=20 observability of total solar eclipses. Since the Moon is spiraling = away=20 from Earth and the Sun is swelling due to its changing internal = structure,=20 such eclipses are possible only for a relatively brief time span. = They=20 will continue only for about 250 million years. That may seem like = a long=20 time, but it constitutes only approximately 5% of Earth=92s = history.

The Sun=92s radiation conveys a wealth of information. By = observing its=20 spectrum, researchers learn about the Sun=92s composition, surface = temperature, and surface gravity. This =93readable=94 spectrum is = not unique=20 to the Sun, but the Sun=92s spectrum is nearly optimal in terms of = measurability and the number (and abundances) of chemical elements = it=20 reveals.

This optimal quality of the Sun=92s measurability derives from=20 characteristics other than its proximity to Earth and the large = number of=20 photons arriving at Earth-based instruments. In comparison to the = spectra=20 of other stars with similar =93signal-to-noise ratio=94 (data = quality), the=20 Sun=92s spectrum contains more extractable information. The = Sun=92s particular=20 surface temperature and its relatively low luminosity allow for = the=20 extraction of more information. The remarkable convergence of = these=20 just-right characteristics maximizes its readability.

The Astronomical Realm

The light sent to Earth from sources outside the solar system = contains=20 a wealth of information about stars, nebulae, galaxies, and even = the=20 intervening matter. Using various techniques and instruments, = astronomers=20 have used that light to map out most of the Milky Way disk, = clearly=20 delineating its spiral arm structure.

The measurement of the three-dimensional space motions of stars = in the=20 Milky Way is possible only because stars can be treated as if they = were=20 mathematical points. This feature allows astronomers to measure = the=20 relative positions of stars very precisely, and it means that = stars can be=20 used as simple probes of the Milky Way=92s gravitational field. If = stars=20 were larger and the distances between them smaller=96=96like = nebulae, for=20 example=96=96then the mathematics would be much more complex. = Stars=92 positions=20 and other features would be far less measurable, because their = light would=20 be spread over a larger volume of space. Also, if the Milky Way = contained=20 fewer stars, it would yield fewer and more obscure clues about its = history=20 and structure.

Astronomers have discovered that certain light sources are = particularly=20 useful as =93standard candles=94 (see sidebar). Examples of = standard candles=20 are Cepheid and RR Lyrae variable stars. The pulsation period of a = Cepheid=20 variable is related to its intrinsic luminosity in a simple way. = By=20 measuring the period and mean apparent brightness of a particular = Cepheid=20 variable star, one can easily calculate its distance. Because of = the=20 simplicity and consistency with which these objects operate, they = provide=20 invaluable reference points, or units of measure. Astronomers rely = on this=20 important data to reveal some of the fundamental constants of the=20 universe.

The cosmic microwave background radiation, first detected in = 1965, has=20 enabled cosmologists to extract information on enormous size- and=20 time-scales. With the launch of the Cosmic Background Explorer = (COBE)=20 satellite in 1989, astronomers were able to make measurements = precise=20 enough to confirm several predictions of the Big Bang theory (a = theory=20 consistent with the Bible) and effectively kill both the Steady = State=20 hypothesis and the oscillating universe hypothesis. Atheistic = cosmologists=20 as a way to avoid a beginning for the universe had favored these=20 hypotheses. Two upcoming space missions, the NASA Microwave = Anisotropy=20 Probe (MAP) and the European Space Agency (ESA) Planck Surveyor, = promise=20 orders of magnitude improvement over the measurements the = pioneering COBE=20 satellite recorded. The background radiation is sufficiently = intense that=20 we can measure it precisely with modern instruments, but not so = strong=20 that it is unaffected by processes shortly following its creation. = Therefore, we can learn about certain parameters of the universe = at very=20 early times, constrain some aspects of fundamental physics, and = garner a=20 glimpse at early large-scale structure and formation.

As the universe ages, the background radiation will become less = measurable. First, the continued expansion of space-time will = cause it to=20 become less intense and more redshifted. Second, as stars continue = to form=20 in the Milky Way, they will contribute to greater foreground=20 contamination, resulting in greater difficulty in measuring the=20 ever-fading background.

Teleological Implications

In terms of its mass, the Sun is among the top 10% most massive = stars=20 in the solar neighborhood.⁶ Aside from obvious = questions of=20 habitability, what if humans were attempting to scan the skies = from a=20 planet orbiting one of the less massive stars, one of those among = the 90%=20 majority? What would they be able to detect and measure? The most=20 fundamental ruler in their astronomical =93tool chest=94 would be = less=20 effective. It is the method called stellar parallax. Earth=92s = inhabitants=20 can use the changing position of the earth in its orbit around the = Sun to=20 detect the apparent reflex motion of nearby stars relative to = distant=20 background stars. By this method they can measure the distance = from the=20 earth to those nearer stars.

M dwarfs are the most common type of star in the Milky Way. The = habitable zone comprises the place around a star where liquid = water can=20 exist on the surface of a terrestrial-like planet continuously. = The=20 estimated diameter of the habitable zone around an M dwarf is only = about=20 10% that of the zone around the Sun, the zone in which Earth = resides.=20 Therefore, for a planet orbiting an M dwarf, the effectiveness of = the=20 stellar parallax method would be severely diminished. In fact, = astronomers=20 on such a planet would be able to observe only one-thousandth the = volume=20 of space Earth-bound astronomers can observe. The distances to = many rare=20 types of stars, such as O and B stars, and Cepheid and RR Lyrae = variables,=20 would remain a mystery, and information they provide would be=20 inaccessible. Clearly, M dwarfs would be less hospitable for life, = and the=20 cosmos far less measurable from their environs.

Since measurability is not a requirement for habitability, one = cannot=20 invoke the Anthropic Principle⁷ to make the remarkable=20 measurability of the universe seem less remarkable. Evidence = suggests that=20 the universe was designed not only for human habitability but also = for=20 human measurability and comprehensibility. The same processes and = features=20 that make Earth habitable also make and preserve a record of = activity and=20 provide a means for measurement. Those very places in the Milky = Way that=20 would be most dangerous to humans (e. g., the galactic center, = globular=20 clusters, and spiral arms) also offer the poorest visibility and=20 opportunity to make measurements. Does it seem a mere coincidence = that=20 Earth=92s location in the Milky Way affords an optimal view of = most of the=20 universe? Humanity=92s home planet is a comfortable porch from = which curious=20 humans can gaze out to the ends of time and space.

This argument allows us to ascribe purpose to any fine-tuned,=20 measurable aspect of the universe, such as stars and galaxies,=20 earthquakes, neutrinos, and the Moon. If anyone asks, =93Why are = there so=20 many stars and galaxies in the universe?=94 One can respond = with=20 double impact: Not only is a universe as big as this one required = for any=20 kind of life, but only a vast number of stars and galaxies permits = intelligent creatures to measure (reliably) the basic parameters = of the=20 universe. Earthquakes are important not only because life needs = the=20 effects of plate tectonics but also because they allow us to probe = the=20 internal structure of the Earth, which could not be done any other = conceivable way. Neutrinos give us a way to measure the = temperature of the=20 sun=92s core and to study the details of neutron star formation in = supernovae explosions. The Moon records some of the early history = of the=20 solar system and takes part in producing wonderful eclipses. And = so=20 on.

Of course, this consideration brings us to the deeper, = theological=20 question: Why would the Creator make the universe so measurable? = What=92s=20 the point of allowing humans to measure the characteristics of the = universe? To those who hold a Christian worldview, the answer is = clear. In=20 fact, the Bible explicitly states it: =93For since the creation of = the world=20 God=92s invisible qualities, His eternal power and divine nature, = have been=20 clearly seen, being understood from what has been made, so that = men are=20 without excuse=94 (Romans 1:19-20).

Sidebar: Standard Candles

Astronomers employ some types of stars as =93standard = candles.=94 These=20 are stars that have luminosities that are in some way standard. As = a=20 simple everyday example of a standard candle, consider an ordinary = 100-watt light bulb. Because a light bulb has a constant = luminosity (or=20 intrinsic brightness) we can estimate its distance from us if we = can=20 measure its apparent brightness. This technique only works if we = have good=20 reason to believe the luminosity of a given light source is some = standard=20 value. For a distant light bulb, one can verify its luminosity by=20 observing it with a telescope and looking for the phrase =93100 = watts.=94 Of=20 course, this does not work with stars, but the principle is=20 similar.

References:

See Stanley L. Jaki, The Savior of Science = (Washington, D.C.:=20 Regnery Gateway, 1988).=20
J. P. Moreland, The Creation Hypothesis (Downers = Grove:=20 InterVarsity Press, 1994), 17.=20
J. R. Petit, et al., =93Climate and Atmospheric History of = the Past=20 420,000 Years from the Vostok Ice Core, Antarctica,=94 Nature = 399(1999): 429-36.=20
C.P. Sonett and M.A. Chan, =93Neoproterozoic Earth-Moon = Dynamics:=20 Rework of the 900 Ma Big Cottonwood Canyon Tidal Laminae,=94=20 Geophysical Research Letters 25 (1998): 539-42.=20
Guillermo Gonzalez, "Wonderful Eclipses," Astronomy & = Geophysics, (June 1999): 3.18-3.20.=20
Guillermo Gonzalez, =93Is the Sun Anomalous?=94 Astronomy = &=20 Geophysics 40 (October 1999): no. 5, 25-29.=20
Hugh Ross, The Creator and the Cosmos 2d ed. = (Colorado=20 Springs, CO: Navpress, 1995), 92, 121-25, 128.

First = Detection=20 of Earth-sized Planet?

By Hugh Ross

A team of 41 astronomers from Australia, Japan, New Zealand, = and the=20 United States took advantage of a naturally occurring telescope to = image a=20 small planet orbiting a star somewhere between us and the Galactic = Bulge=20 (the dense concentration of stars that exists at the core of our = Milky Way=20 galaxy).¹ The natural telescope consisted of a large = star=20 functioning as a gravitational lens. According to general = relativity, a=20 sufficiently massive body can bend the path of a beam of light = that passes=20 close enough to it. Therefore, if such a body lies between = us and=20 another object located directly behind it, it can magnify for us = the image=20 of the more distant object (see diagram). The more massive = the lense=20 object is, the more it will magnify.

Gravitational lenses that astronomers are fortunate = enough to=20 find exhibit widely varying magnifying properties. In this = particular case=20 the magnification exceeded twenty times.

The team=92s results demonstrate that relative to the star, = MACHO=20 98-BLG-35, that provided the gravitational lens phenomenon, the = planet=20 orbiting it is between 0.004 and 0.02 percent of the mass of the = star. For=20 star masses that could possibly give rise to such a spectacular=20 magnification, the planet mass orbiting it would fall between 3 = and 35=20 times the mass of the Earth (or, 0.17 and 2.0 Neptune masses). =

While not so small as an Earth-sized planet, the discovered = object does=20 rank as the smallest extrasolar planet yet found. The next = smallest is=20 about ten times more massive.

Can this gravitational lens technique ever find planets as = small as=20 Earth? Yes, but probably not more than a handful and never with = any=20 certainty as to the mass of the planet, its distance from its = star, or any=20 of the features of its orbit. That job must be left to the space=20 interferometer project discussed in the accompanying article.

The apologetic significance of the planet discovered orbiting = MACHO=20 98-BLG-35 is that the data demonstrates the planetary system is = lacking in=20 large gas-giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn. Since such = gas-giants,=20 located where they are in our solar system and manifesting stable=20 near-circular orbits, are essential ingredients for the support of = life on=20 Earth,² we know that the MACHO 98-BLG-35 system is not = a=20 candidate for a possibly life-supporting planet. Indeed, not one = of the 42=20 extrasolar planetary systems discovered so far offers any = possibility of=20 harboring a planet with the capacity to support life.

The hope expressed by many non-theists before all this research = got=20 started was that planetary systems like ours would prove to be=20 common. This hope appears to be dashed. Our solar system so = far=20 remains alone in exhibiting the extraordinary properties necessary = for the=20 maintenance of a planet with the capacity to support = life. =20

References:

S. H. Rhie, et al, =93On Planetary Companions to the MACHO = 98-BLG-35=20 Microlens Star,=94 Astrophysical Journal, 533 (2000), pp. = 378-391.=20
Hugh Ross, The Creator and the Cosmos, second edition = (Colorado Springs, CO: NavPress, 1995), pp. 137-138. =

Pr= otein=20 Structures Reveal Even More Evidence for Design

By Fazale (Fuz) R. Rana, Ph.D.

Recent structural characterization of three proteins, RNA = polymerase=20 II, thioredoxin reductase (from E. coli), and chloroplast=20 F₁-F₀ ATPase, provides exciting additional = evidence=20 for Design at the subcellular level.^{1, 2, 3} These = three=20 proteins possess, as part of their architectural make-up, = components that=20 are literally machine parts. These new discoveries add = to the=20 growing list of molecular motors (enzyme assemblies responsible = for=20 cellular movement) and other enzyme systems that are direct = analogs to=20 man-made devices.^{4, 5, 6}

A team of researchers from Stanford University has recently = solved the=20 structure of the RNA polymerase II backbone at 3.5 =C5 = resolution.⁷⁼²⁰ RNA polymerase II is a 12-protein subunit complex that = synthesizes messenger RNA using DNA as a template. Messenger RNA = produced=20 this way contains the information needed to direct the synthesis = of=20 proteins at subcellular particles called ribosomes. For this = reason, RNA=20 polymerase II plays a central role in gene expression.

The structural analysis of RNA polymerase II has been nearly 20 = years=20 in the works.⁸This has been due to such = factors as=20 the small amount of it in the cell, as well as its fragility, its = large=20 size, and its complexity. Diligent effort over the years coupled = with=20 technological advances has finally allowed the team from Stanford=20 University to visualize the structure of RNA polymerase II.

The results of this work have been well worth the wait. The = molecular=20 basis for understanding RNA polymerase II function is now in = place.=20 Equally as exciting are the theological implications of this = work.

RNA polymerase II has remarkable machine-like=20 character.⁹ RNA polymerase II subunits form a = channel=20 that houses the chain-like DNA template. =93Jaws=94 help grip the = DNA template=20 holding it in place during RNA synthesis. The newly formed RNA = chain locks=20 into place a hinge clamp as it exits the RNA polymerase II = channel. A=20 funnel-like pore delivers the small subunit molecules to the RNA=20 polymerase II channel. Then the small subunit molecules in the = channel are=20 added to the growing end of the RNA chain.

In a similar vein, structural characterization at 3.0 =C5 = resolution=20 reveals that thioredoxin reductase function is built around a ball = and=20 socket joint.¹⁰ This enzyme, isolated from the = bacterium=20 E. coli, assists in the transfer of electrons between=20 molecules. During the catalytic cycle, the enzyme undergoes = a=20 conformational rearrangement that involves the 67=B0 rotation of = one of its=20 domains around a clearly defined swivel surface.

Finally, recent image analysis by a team from Germany and = Switzerland=20 using atomic force microscopy has revealed structural information = about=20 chloroplast F₁-F₀ ATPase. On the basis = of this=20 work, we can now add this enzyme to the growing list of ATPase = enzymes=20 that are rotary motors.¹¹ As with the other = rotary motor=20 ATPases, chloroplast ATPase has a rotor, stator, and turbine.

The recent recognition that these three enzymes have = machine-like=20 domains, along with previous structural characterization of other = enzymes=20 with machine parts (such as F₁-F₀ ATPase,=20 V₁-V₀ ATPase, bacterial flagellar proteins = and=20 myosin) serve to revitalize the Watchmaker = argument.¹² =20 Popularized by William Paley in the 18^th century, this = argument=20 states that as a watch requires a watchmaker, so too, nature = requires a=20 Creator.

This simple, yet powerful, argument has been challenged by = skeptics=20 like David Hume, who asserts that the necessary conclusion of a = Creator,=20 based on analogical reasoning, is only compelling if there is a = high=20 degree of similarity between the objects that form the=20 analogy.¹³ Skeptics have long argued that nature = and a=20 watch are sufficiently dissimilar so that the conclusion drawn = from the=20 Watchmaker argument is unsound.

The discovery of enzymes with domains that are direct analogs = to=20 man-made devices addresses this concern, because of the striking=20 similarity between the machine parts of these enzymes and man-made = devices. Furthermore, as the list of enzymes with machine = parts=20 grows, the conclusion of the Watchmaker analogy grows even more = certain.=20 Experts in inductive thinking will point out that the more objects = taking=20 part in an analogy, the more sound the conclusion arrived at = through=20 analogical reasoning.¹⁴

References:

Patrick Cramer, et al., =93Architecture of RNA Polymerase II = and=20 Implications for the Transcription Mechanism,=94 Science = 288=20 (2000): 640-49.=20
Brett W. Lennon et al., =93Twists in Catalysis: Alternating=20 Conformations of Escherichia coli Thioredoxin = Reductase,=94=20 Science 289 (2000): 1190-94.=20
Holger Seelert et al., =93Proton-Powered Turbine of a = Plant,=94=20 Nature 405 (2000): 418-19.=20
Michael Behe, Darwin=92s Black Box: The Biochemical = Challenge To=20 Evolution (New York: The Free Press, 1996), 69-72.=20
Hugh Ross, =93Small Scale Evidence of Grand-Scale Design,=94 = Facts=20 and Faith 4, no. 2 (1997): 1.=20
Fazale Rana and Micah Lott, =93Hume vs. Paley: These = =91Motors=92 Settle=20 the Debate,=94 Facts for Faith 1, No. 2 (2000): 34-39.=20
Patrick Cramer et al., 640-49.=20
Joan Weliky Conaway and Ronald C. Conaway, =93Light at the = End of the=20 Channel,=94 Science 288 (2000): 632-33.=20
Conaway and Conaway, 632-33.=20
Lennon et al., 1190-94.=20
Holger Seelert et al., 418-19.=20
Rana and Lott, 34-39.=20
Rana and Lott, 34-39.=20
Patrick J. Hurley, A Concise Introduction To Logic,=20 6^th ed. (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing,1997), = 494-96.=20

Problem of Evil = (Part=20 Two)

By Ron Nash

In the last installment of this series, I noted that the = problem of=20 evil is for most people the toughest question to deal with. = I also=20 pointed out the importance of breaking the problem of evil down = into=20 several smaller components. If we know how to break the = problem of=20 evil into several smaller difficulties, at least we are no longer = facing=20 an enormous issue, and we have a chance of explaining the smaller=20 components. In this issue, we=92ll consider three of = them.

Moral Evil and Natural Evil

A good place to begin our downsizing of the problem of evil is=20 recognizing the difference between two kinds of evil: moral evil = and=20 natural evil. Moral evil results from the choices and = actions of=20 human beings. When the question why is asked about = some moral=20 evil, the answer will include a reference to something that humans = did or=20 did not do. Moral evil sometimes results when a human acts, = for=20 example, by shooting a gun. But moral evil may also occur as = a=20 result of human inaction, the failure to do something. = Perhaps=20 someone could have prevented the person from getting the gun and=20 didn=92t. So moral evil results from human choices and = actions; any=20 other kind of evil is what we call natural evil. The class = of=20 natural evils includes such things as earthquakes, tornadoes, and = diseases=20 not resulting from human choices. Many wise people believe = questions=20 about the two kinds of evil require different kinds of = answers. I=20 hope to consider examples of these different answers in future=20 columns.

The Theoretical versus the Personal Problems of = Evil

It is one thing to deal with evil on a purely theoretical or=20 philosophical level. It is something quite different to = encounter=20 evil in a personal way. Sitting in a philosophy classroom = and=20 thinking about the problem of evil is obviously different from = struggling=20 with the news that a loved one has just died in an automobile=20 accident. At the moment when one is being hammered = existentially by=20 some particular instance of evil or pain, it is easy to forget a=20 philosophical argument that once seemed to suggest answers as to = why evil=20 exists. Someone troubled by aspects of the theoretical or=20 philosophical problem of evil may find help from a respected = philosopher=20 or apologist. But when one confronts a personal problem of = evil,=20 that person may need a wise and caring friend, pastor, or = counselor.

The distinction before us at this point reminds me of an = important=20 lesson we can learn from the life of C.S. Lewis. One of = Lewis=92s more=20 influential books, The Problem of Pain, offers his answers = to the=20 theoretical problem of evil. Many believe there are some = very good=20 arguments in that book. However, after Lewis met and then = married=20 Joy Gresham, he learned the painful truth about the difference = between the=20 theoretical and personal problems of evil. His wife=92s = eventual death=20 from cancer after a long period of painful suffering plunged Lewis = into a=20 time of doubt and depression. At that time he was confronted = by the=20 personal problem of evil, and the philosophical arguments in his = earlier=20 book were of no help to him. What he needed and obtained was = help=20 from one of Joy=92s sons and from his pastor.

Evil in General versus Specific Instances of = Evil

My last distinction notes the difference between evil in = general and=20 particular cases of evil. Like most philosophers and = apologists, I=20 know a number of arguments that I believe help to explain why = moral and=20 natural evil exist. I hope to look at some of those = arguments in a=20 future column. But when I or someone else is confronted by a = specific instance of evil such as a loved one diagnosed with = terminal=20 cancer or a person killed in a car crash, we=92re dealing with an = entirely=20 different matter.

Conclusion

It should be clear that this short essay does not solve the = problem of=20 evil in any of its forms. That was not my intention. = Rather, I=20 have sought to show that our first efforts to deal with the = problem of=20 evil should attempt to cut it down to size, reduce it to smaller = parts of=20 the larger problem. After we have done this, our next steps = may be=20 slightly easier.

Dr. Ronald Nash is Professor of Philosophy at Reformed = Theological=20 Seminary in Orlando, Florida and also at Southern Baptist = Theological=20 Seminary in Louisville, Kentucky. He is the author of 35 books = including=20 Life=92s Ultimate Questions (Zondervan), The Meaning of History = (Broadman=20 & Holman) and The Word of God and the Mind of Man = (Presbyterian and=20 Reformed). All are easily available from http://www.barnesandnoble.com/=20 and http://www.amazon.com/.

Thinking About = The=20 Incarnation:
The Divine Word Became Flesh

By Kenneth Richard Samples

At the very heart of historic Christianity is a truly = astounding=20 truth-claim that is celebrated all around the world at Christmas. = This=20 central article of the Christian faith is known as the doctrine of = the=20 Incarnation: God became man in Jesus of Nazareth. It is = this truth=20 that sets Christianity apart from all other religions of the world = (including Judaism and Islam). For it is unique to Christianity to = discover a God who takes the initiative in becoming flesh in order = to=20 redeem sinful human beings. As C. S. Lewis aptly put it, =93The = Son of God=20 became a man to enable men to become sons of = God.=94¹

The Christian teaching that the Savior of the world is both = divine and=20 human is certainly a mysterious and unfathomable doctrine. For = that reason=20 it is often misunderstood and misrepresented. This article will = briefly=20 explain the doctrine of the Incarnation, and respond to some = critical=20 questions concerning its origin, importance, historical = development, and=20 coherence.

The Historic Christian Doctrine of the Incarnation

The most important creedal statement concerning the Incarnation = is the=20 Creed of Chalcedon. It was the Council of Chalcedon (the fourth = ecumenical=20 council) in A.D. 451 that laid down the basic boundaries = concerning the=20 orthodox view of Christ=92s person and nature. According to this = council,=20 Jesus Christ is one divine Person in two natures (divinity and = humanity).=20 Thus the Chalcedon Creed became, and continues to be, the = normative=20 standard for the orthodox doctrine of Christ. All of Christendom = (Roman=20 Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and Protestant) affirms the = Chalcedonian=20 formula that Jesus Christ is both God and man. This creed = enunciates the=20 orthodox doctrine of the Incarnation (specifically Christ=92s two = natures)=20 in the following manner:

We all with one voice confess our Lord Jesus Christ to be one = and the=20 same Son, perfect in divinity and humanity, truly God and truly = human,=20 consisting of a rational soul and a body, being of one substance = with=20 the Father in relation to his divinity, and being of one = substance with=20 us in relation to his humanity, and is like us in all things = apart from=20 sin. He was begotten of the Father before time in relation to = his=20 divinity, and in these recent days was born from the Virgin = Mary, the=20 Theotokos [God-bearer], for us and for our salvation. In = relation=20 to the humanity he is one and the same Christ, the Son, the = Lord, the=20 Only-begotten, who is to be acknowledged in two natures, without = confusion, without change, without division, and without = separation. The=20 distinction of natures is in no way abolished on account of this = union,=20 but rather the characteristic property of each nature is = preserved, and=20 concurring into one Person and one subsistence, not as if Christ = were=20 parted or divided into two persons, but remains one and the same = Son and=20 Only-begotten God, Word, Lord, Jesus Christ; even as the = Prophets from=20 the beginning spoke concerning him, and our Lord Jesus Christ = instructed=20 us, and the Creed of the Fathers was handed down to=20 us.²

The Chalcedonian formulation does not explain just how = the two=20 natures are united in one person, but it sets the crucial = theological=20 parameters for orthodox biblical Christology (doctrine of the = person and=20 nature of Christ).

The Christian Theistic View of God and the Incarnation

The doctrine of the Incarnation should properly be understood = within=20 the broader context of the Christian theistic view of God. The God = unveiled in the Bible and later expressed in the historic creeds = and=20 confessions of Christendom is the one sovereign and majestic Lord. = Historic Christianity thus affirms belief in one infinitely = perfect,=20 eternal, and personal (or superpersonal) God, the transcendent = Creator and=20 sovereign Sustainer of the universe. This one God is Triune, = existing=20 eternally and simultaneously as three distinct and distinguishable = persons: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit.³ All three = persons in=20 the Godhead, or Divine Being, share equally and completely the one = divine=20 nature, and are therefore the same God, coequal in attributes, = nature, and=20 glory. The doctrine of the Incarnation then properly emerges = doctrinally=20 from this explicit Trinitarian teaching.

The term =93incarnation=94 is of Latin origin, and literally = means=20 =93becoming in flesh=94 (Lat. in carne, Gk. en = sarki). While the=20 term is not contained in Scripture per se, the Greek equivalent is = (John=20 1:14: Kai ho logos sarx egeneto -- =93And the Word became = flesh=94).=20 The doctrine of the Incarnation is at the heart of the biblical = message=20 for it reveals the person and nature of the Lord and Savior Jesus = Christ.=20 The Christian doctrine of the Incarnation teaches that the eternal = Logos (Word), the second person of the Trinity, without = diminishing=20 His deity took to Himself a fully human nature. Specifically, this = doctrine teaches that a full and undiminished divine nature, and a = full=20 and perfect human nature were inseparably united in the one = historical and=20 divine person of Jesus of Nazareth. According to Holy Scripture, = Jesus=20 Christ is God the Son in human flesh (theanthropos, the=20 God-man).

The Hypostatic Union

As the Incarnate Son of God, Jesus Christ is one person with = two=20 natures. In accord with the Chalcedonian definition, these two = natures=20 (divinity and humanity) =93remain distinct, whole, and unchanged, = without=20 mixture or confusion so that the one person, Jesus Christ, is = truly God=20 and truly man.=94⁴Christ is one in substance = (homoousios)=20 with the Father in regard to His divine nature, and one in = substance with=20 humanity in regard to His human nature. The two natures are = perfectly=20 united forever in the one person (hypostasis) of Jesus = Christ. The=20 hypostatic union refers therefore to the union of the two distinct = natures=20 in the one person of Jesus Christ (neither dividing the person nor = confounding the natures). Philosophically speaking, as the = God-man, Jesus=20 Christ is =93two Whats=94(i.e., a divine =93what=94 [or nature] = and a human =93what=94=20 [or nature]) and =93one Who=94( i.e., a single =93person=94 or = =93self=94).

Ten Essential Points about the Incarnation

The following ten points convey essential information about the = Incarnation, and will help one think through the most important = elements=20 concerning the doctrine.⁵

Jesus Christ is one person possessing two distinct natures: = a fully=20 divine nature and a fully human nature (a unity of person and a = duality=20 of natures). The historic person of Jesus of Nazareth is = therefore the=20 God-man.=20
While Christ has two natures, He nevertheless remains a = single=20 unified person (not two different persons). Christ=92s human = nature=20 subsists only for the purpose of this union; it has no = independent=20 personal subsistence of its own. Christ is the same person both = before=20 and after the Incarnation. The difference is that before the = Incarnation=20 Christ had but one nature, namely divine. After the Incarnation, = this=20 very same Christ added to Himself an additional nature =96 a = human one =96=20 that subsists together with the divine nature that He had and = continues=20 to have. While Christ has a divine and a human consciousness = (and two=20 wills as part of the two natures), He nevertheless remains one = person.=20 Christian orthodoxy rejected the Nestorian heresy that taught = that there=20 were two separate persons in Christ.=20
Through His divine nature, Jesus Christ is God the Son, = second=20 person of the Trinity, who shares the one divine essence fully = and=20 equally with the Father and the Holy Spirit. Christian orthodoxy = rejected the Arian heresy that viewed Jesus merely as a God-like = creature.=20
Through His human nature, Jesus Christ is fully human, = possessing=20 all the essential attributes of a true human being. Christian = orthodoxy=20 rejected Docetism, which denied the true humanity of = Christ.=20
The properties or attributes of both natures may be properly = predicated of the one Person. In other words, the one person of = Jesus=20 Christ retains all of the attributes of both natures (e.g., = through His=20 divine nature He is omniscient while simultaneously through His = human=20 nature He may lack knowledge).=20
The union of the two natures is not an indwelling, nor a = mere=20 contact or occupancy of space, but a personal union. This is = similar to=20 the union of body and soul in human beings.=20
The two natures coinhere or interpenetrate in perfect union = so that=20 the human is never without the divine or the divine without the = human,=20 but the natures do not mix or mingle.=20
The two natures, divine and human, are distinct, but = inseparably=20 united in the one person. The two natures retain their own = attributes or=20 qualities and are thus not mixed together. Christian orthodoxy = rejected=20 the Eutychian heresy that blended the two natures of Christ = together to=20 form one hybrid nature (monophysitism: one nature).=20
The human nature is not deified, and the divine nature does = not=20 suffer human limitation.=20
The word nature refers to essence or substance, and these = two=20 natures are inseparable, unmixed, and unchanged.

With these essential points in mind about the person and = natures of=20 Christ, one can now consider four important questions about the = doctrine=20 of the Incarnation.

Four Critical Questions about the Incarnation

I. Since there is no passage in the New Testament where Jesus = Christ=20 actually says =93I am God,=94 how did Christianity come to = formulate the=20 doctrine of the Incarnation?

The doctrine of the Incarnation is the result of the Christian = church=92s=20 sustained and critical reflection upon the overwhelming Scriptural = evidence that Jesus is indeed both God and man. Jesus=92 apostles = were=20 thorough-going Jewish monotheists; they nevertheless became = convinced that=20 while Jesus was indeed a man, He was far more than just a man. In = fact, in=20 various ways these same apostles placed Jesus on the level of = Yahweh in=20 their Scriptural writings. The apostles came to the astounding = conviction=20 that to encounter Jesus of Nazareth was to encounter none other = than God=20 in human flesh. While it is true that there is no specific passage = where=20 Jesus actually says in so many words =93I am God,=94 there are at = least seven=20 (and possibly as many as ten) specific New Testament references = where=20 Jesus is called or referred to as God (Gk. theos).^{6 =}The=20 Bible thoroughly supports both the deity and humanity of Jesus = Christ.

While literally hundreds of passages could be marshaled to = support the=20 doctrine of the Incarnation,⁷ the following is merely a = brief=20 survey of the biblical support for this distinctive and essential=20 Christian doctrine.

A. Biblical Support for the True Deity of Jesus = Christ

The Bible attests in numerous ways to the full and undiminished = deity=20 of Jesus Christ. Consider the following outlined material in = support of=20 Christ=92s deity (this outline was derived from the works of = Murray J.=20 Harris and John Jefferson Davis).⁸

Divine titles proclaimed by or attributed to Jesus=20 Christ⁹=20
1. God (John 1:1, 18; 20:28; Rom. 9:5; Titus 2:13; Heb. 1:8; = 2 Pet.=20 1:1)=20
2. Lord (Mark 12:35-37; John 20:28; Rom. 10:9-13; 1 Cor. = 8:5-6; 12:3;=20 Phil. 2:11)=20
3. Messiah (Matt. 16:16; Mark 14:61; John 20:31)=20
4. Son of God (Matt. 11:27; Mark 15:39; John 1:18; Rom. 1:4; = Gal.=20 4:4; Heb. 1;2)=20
5. Son of Man (Matt. 16:28; 24:30; Mark 8:38; 14:62-64; Acts = 7:56;=20 cf. Dan. 7:13-14)
Characteristics or actions of Yahweh proclaimed by or = attributed to=20 Jesus Christ=20
1. Worship of Yahweh applied to Jesus Christ (Isa. 45:23 / = Phil.=20 2:10-11)=20
2. Salvation of Yahweh applied to Jesus Christ (Joel 2:32 / = Rom.=20 10:13)=20
3. Judgment of Yahweh applied to Jesus Christ (Isa. 6:10 / = John=20 12:41)=20
4. Nature of Yahweh applied to Jesus Christ (Exod. 3:14 / = John 8:58)=20
5. Triumph of Yahweh applied to Jesus Christ (Ps. 68:18 / = Eph. 4:8)=20
Divine names, actions, or prerogatives proclaimed by or = attributed=20 to Jesus Christ=20
1. Creator (John 1:3; Col. 1:16; Heb. 1:2, 10-12)=20
2. Sustainer (1 Cor. 8:6; Col. 1:17; Heb. 1:3)=20
3. Universal Ruler (Matt. 28:18; Rom. 14:9; Rev. 1:5)=20
4. Forgiver of sins (Mark 2:5-7; Luke 24:47; Acts 5:31; Col. = 3:13)=20
5. Raiser of the dead (Luke 7:11-17; John 5:21; 6:40)=20
6. Object of prayer (John 14:14; Acts 1:24; 7:59-60; 1 Cor. = 1:2; 2=20 Cor. 12:8-9)=20
7. Object of worship (Matt. 28:16-17; John 5:23; 20:28; Phil. = 2:10-11; Heb. 1:6)=20
8. Object of saving faith (John 14:1; Acts 10:43; 16:31; Rom. = 10:8-13)=20
9. Image and Representation of God (Col. 1:15; Heb. 1:3) =
Divine attributes or qualities proclaimed by or attributed = to Jesus=20 Christ=20
1. Eternal existence (John 1:1; 8:58; 17:5; 1 Cor. 10:4; Col. = 1:17;=20 Heb. 13:8)=20
2. Self-existence (John 1:3; 5:26; Col. 1:16; Heb. 1:2)=20
3. Immutability (Heb. 1:10-12; 13:8)=20
4. Omnipresence (Matt. 18:20; 28:20; Eph. 1:23; 4:10; Col. = 3:11)=20
5. Omniscience (Mark 2:8; Luke 9:47; John 2:25; 4:18; 16:30; = Col.=20 2:3)=20
6. Omnipotence (John 1:3; 2:19; Col. 1:16-17; Heb. 1:2)=20
7. Sovereignty (Phil. 2:9-11; 1 Pet. 3:22; Rev. 19:16)=20
8. Authority (Matt. 28:18; Eph. 1:22)=20
9. Life in Himself (John 1:4; 5:26; Acts 3:15) =

B. Biblical Support for the True Humanity of Jesus Christ

The Bible attests in numerous ways to the full and essential = humanity=20 of Jesus Christ. Consider the following outlined material in = support of=20 Christ=92s humanity.¹⁰

Jesus Christ calls Himself or others call Him a man=20
1. During His earthly ministry (John 8:40; Acts 2:22; 1 Cor. = 15:21;=20 Phil. 2:7-8)=20
2. After His resurrection (Acts 17:31; 1 Cor. 15:47; 1 Tim. = 2:5; Heb.=20 2:14; 4:15)
Jesus Christ was conceived supernaturally, but born = naturally (Matt.=20 1:25; Luke 2:7; Gal. 4:4)=20
Jesus Christ had ancestors (Matt. 1; Luke 3)=20
Jesus Christ experienced normal growth and development (Luke = 2:40-52; Heb. 5:8)=20
Jesus Christ was subject to real physical limitations=20
1. Weariness (John 4:6)=20
2. Hunger (Matt. 21:18)=20
3. Need for sleep (Matt. 8:24)=20
4. Thirst (John 19:28)=20
5. Sweat (Luke 22:44)=20
6. Temptation (Matt. 4:1-11)=20
7. Lack of knowledge (Mark 9:21; 13:32)
Jesus Christ experienced physical pain and death (Mark = 14:33-36;=20 Luke 17:25; 22:63; 23:33; John 19:30)=20
Jesus Christ exhibited the full range of human emotions=20
1. Joy (Luke 10:21; John 17:13)=20
2. Sorrow (Matt. 26:37)=20
3. Love (John 11:5)=20
4. Compassion (Matt. 9:36)=20
5. Weeping (John 11:35)=20
6. Astonishment (Luke 7:9)=20
7. Anger (Mark 3:5; 10:14)=20
8. Loneliness (Mark 14:32-42; 15:34)
Jesus Christ has all the essential qualities of a human = being=20
1. Body (Matt. 26:12)=20
2. Bones (Luke 24:39)=20
3. Flesh (Luke 24:39)=20
4. Blood (Matt. 26:28)=20
5. Soul (Matt. 26:38)=20
6. Will (John 5:30)=20
7. Spirit (John 11:33)
Incarnational Passages

=93The Word became flesh and made his dwelling among = us=85.=94 (John=20 1:14)

=93Your attitude should be the same as that of Christ Jesus: = Who, being=20 in very nature God, did not consider equality with God something = to be=20 grasped, but made himself nothing, taking the very nature of a = servant,=20 being made in human likeness.=94 (Phil. 2:5-6)

=93For in Christ all the fullness of Deity lives in bodily = form=85=94 (Col.=20 2:9)

=93This is how you can recognize the Spirit of God: Every = spirit that=20 acknowledges that Jesus Christ has come in the flesh is from = God=85=94 (1=20 John 4:2)

The passages cited above specifically and explicitly teach the = doctrine=20 of the Incarnation (see also Rom. 1:2-5; 9:5; 1 Tim. 3:16; = Heb.=20 2:14; 5:7; 1 John 1:1-3).

II. Why is the doctrine of the Incarnation important?

It has been said that =93Christianity is Christ.=94 The meaning = behind this=20 statement is, of course, that Christ is the center and heart of = historic=20 Christian truth. The Christian gospel message is all about the = person,=20 nature, and work of Jesus Christ. British theologian Alister E. = McGrath=20 articulately describes Christianity=92s unique Christocentric = focus:

If Christianity has a center, it is Jesus Christ. It is = impossible=20 for the Christian to talk about God, salvation, or worship = without=20 bringing Jesus into the discussion, whether explicitly or = implicitly.=20 For New Testament writers, Jesus is a window onto the nature, = character,=20 and purposes of God. Jesus is the ground of salvation. Since the = time of=20 the New Testament onwards, Christians have worshipped Jesus as = the risen=20 Lord and Savior of the world.¹¹

In light of this Christocentric focus, the doctrine of the = Incarnation=20 has enormous significance for Christians. Through examining the=20 Incarnation Christ=92s person and nature are clearly revealed, and = it is=20 directly because of His identity (as the God-man) that He is able = to=20 perform His work of redemption. God the Son, second person of the = Trinity,=20 assumed a human nature and entered the time-space world. Living = and acting=20 here in a way that is open to actual historical investigation, he = provided=20 redemption for sinful mankind. As the God-man, He alone was able = to=20 represent both God and mankind and to provide redemption through = His=20 perfect life, sacrificial death, and glorious bodily resurrection = from the=20 dead.

Since Christ is the center of Christian doctrine and truth, His = identity is of vital importance. It follows therefore that the = doctrine of=20 the Incarnation that reveals His identity is the foundation on = which all=20 Christian doctrine is built. This is clearly seen when one begins = to=20 analyze closely some of the central tenets of the Christian=20 faith.¹² For example, consider the following:

God=92s existence and characteristics: While one may = know many=20 important things about God via general revelation (i.e., through = the=20 created order, the providential ordering of history, and the = human=20 conscience), without the Incarnation, talking about God is = highly=20 speculative and knowing God personally is virtually impossible.=20
The Trinity: The two other persons of the Godhead, = the Father=20 and the Holy Spirit, are uniquely understood and appreciated in = light of=20 the revealed person and nature of Christ. The Incarnation = illumines the=20 great truth about the triune nature of God.=20
The Atonement: Only Jesus Christ, who is both God and = man, is=20 able to offer Himself as a sacrifice that reconciles a holy God = with=20 sinful mankind. Christ can do what He did redemptively (Savior) = because=20 He is what He is ontologically (God-man).=20
Resurrection: A bodily resurrection that conquers = death is=20 only possible for the God-man (Rom 1:3-4).=20
Justification: Human beings are justified before God = through=20 faith (personal trust) in the person of Jesus Christ. The basis = of=20 humanity=92s acquittal before the Father is directly tied to the = actions=20 of the divine-human Savior on the cross.

The doctrine of the Incarnation touches and influences every = area of=20 Christian theology. To change or distort the identity of Jesus = Christ is=20 to destroy the essence of the Christian faith (2 Cor. 11:3-4; Gal. = 1:6-9).=20 Jesus specifically instructs His disciples and others to consider = and=20 reflect upon His true identity (Matt. 16:13-16; 22:41-46, cf. Ps. = 110).=20 Jesus warned some of the Jewish leaders of His time that their = eternal=20 destinies rested on whether they would acknowledge and accept Him = for who=20 He really was (John 8:23-24, 28, 52-53, 57-58). Jesus and the = apostles=20 also warned the church about the ever present danger of = counterfeit=20 Christs (Matt. 24:4-5, 11, 23-24; 2 Cor. 11:3-4, 13-14; Gal. = 1:6-9; 1 Tim.=20 4:1-2; 2 Tim. 4:3; 2 Pet. 2:1-2; 1 John 2:22-23; 4:1-3; Jude = 3).

III. Historically speaking, weren=92t there theological = positions held=20 by individuals and various groups that challenged and/or rejected = the=20 orthodox position concerning the person and nature of Christ?

The central doctrinal controversies of the first several = centuries of=20 Christian church history focused on Christological issues = (questions=20 concerning the person and nature of Christ). What follows is a = brief=20 explanation of the major Christological heresies,¹³ = including=20 what they taught about Christ, how it differed from orthodoxy, and = how=20 Christian orthodoxy responded.

A. Ancient Christological Heresies

Docetism: A branch of Gnosticism, this view affirmed = a type=20 of dualism (the belief that matter is evil and spirit is good).=20 Docetists insisted that Jesus only seemed to be human (Gk. = Dokeo=20 =96 =93to seem=94), even asserting that Jesus had a = =93phantom-like body.=94=20 Docetism denied the true humanity of Christ. The apostles = encountered=20 this heresy in the first century (1 John 4:1-3).=20
Ebionism: According to this view, Jesus is a mere = man, a=20 prophet but the natural son of Joseph and Mary (no virgin = birth).=20 Ebionism denied the true deity of Christ. This view is traced to = the=20 second century.=20
Arianism: Arius of Alexandria (A.D. 256-336) argued = that=20 Jesus was of like substance (homoiousios) with the = Father, but=20 not the same substance (homoousios). Jesus was viewed as = the=20 first and greatest creation of God, thus denying the true deity = of=20 Christ. This influential heresy, which the ancient church father = Athanasius (ca. 296-373) successfully battled, was first = condemned at=20 the Council of Nicea (A.D. 325).=20
Apollinarianism: Following Apollinarius (born ca. = 310), the=20 Bishop of Laodicea, this view taught that in the Incarnation the = divine=20 Logos took the place of the human soul and psyche of Christ. = Jesus'=20 humanity was restricted to his physical body, thus reducing his=20 humanity. Apollinarianism denied the true humanity of Christ. = This=20 heresy was condemned at the Council of Constantinople (A.D. = 381).=20
Nestorianism: This view affirmed both Christ=92s = deity and=20 humanity, but saw the union between the natures as only a moral = and/or=20 sympathetic union, not a real personal union. This position = represents=20 an overemphasis upon the distinctiveness of the natures. As a = result,=20 Jesus became two persons in two natures, rather than the = orthodox=20 position of one person in two natures. This heresy was condemned = at the=20 Council of Ephesus (A.D. 431).=20
Eutychianism: Following Eutyches (ca. A.D. 378-454) = this view=20 held that Christ had one mixed or compound nature. The two = natures=20 merged to form a single nature that was neither divine nor human = (a=20 third substance). This position represents an overemphasis upon = the=20 unity of the natures. This heresy was condemned at the Council = of=20 Chalcedon (A.D. 451), and at the third Council of Constantinople = (A.D.=20 680).=20
Monophysitism: This view held that Christ had only = one=20 nature. Usually, it was argued that the human nature was = absorbed into=20 the divine nature. This heresy was condemned at the third = Council of=20 Constantinople (A.D. 680).=20
Monothelitism: This view held that Christ had only = one will.=20 The orthodox position is that if Christ had two natures He must = have had=20 two wills, though the human will conforms in every way to the = divine=20 will. Monothelitism was also condemned at the third Council of=20 Constantinople.

IV. Isn=92t the very concept of the Incarnation (one person as = God and=20 man) logically incoherent?

Christians embrace the doctrine of the Incarnation as an = indispensable=20 truth of divine revelation. God coming in the flesh to redeem lost = sinners=20 is at the very heart of historic Christianity=92s gospel = proclamation.=20 However, just how Jesus Christ is both God and man (two natures = united in=20 one person) is an unfathomable mystery. In fact, this may indeed = be the=20 most profound Christian mystery of all. But while the Incarnation = is=20 incomprehensible to the finite mind, it should not be rejected as=20 incoherent or absurd. Divinely revealed truth may indeed move = above=20 reason, but never against reason, for God is the source and ground = of=20 rationality itself. The following two points briefly address two = logical=20 challenges to the Incarnation.

Some have argued that the Incarnation is absurd because it = asserts that=20 the infinite (divine nature) is contained in the finite (human = nature).=20 But the Incarnation does not imply that the infinite is contained = in the=20 finite.¹⁴ This criticism is clearly a straw man. The = divine=20 nature of Christ was not confined or limited to the human nature = (or to=20 the body of Christ). While the divine nature is in union with the = human=20 nature in the one person, the divine nature certainly extends = beyond the=20 bounds of the human nature.¹⁵ Biblical scholar and = Protestant=20 Reformer John Calvin explains:

For even if the Word in his immeasurable essence united with = the=20 nature of man into one person, we do not imagine that he was = confined=20 therein. Here is something marvelous: the Son of God descended = from=20 heaven in such a way that without leaving heaven, he willed to = be born=20 in the Virgin=92s womb, to go about the earth, and to hang upon = the cross;=20 yet he continuously filled the world even as he had done from = the=20 beginning.¹⁶

The Incarnation should be understood as =93God plus=94 (God the = Son plus a=20 human nature), not as =93God minus=94 (loss of deity or divine = attributes) or=20 =93God limited=94 (the infinite limited in the finite). The = Incarnation should=20 be thought of as the divine Logos, a preexistent (eternal) person, = assuming a human nature unto Himself, without laying His deity = aside.

Some think that since God is unlimited (omnipotent, = omniscient,=20 omnipresent, eternal, uncreated) but humans are limited=20 (non-omnipotent, non-omniscient, non-omnipresent, time bound, = created),=20 then the very concept of someone being both God and man is = logically=20 contradictory and therefore impossible. But could there be another = way to=20 look at this proposed logical dilemma? Some contemporary Christian = philosophers definitely think so.¹⁷ They argue that = ordinary=20 human beings are fully human (possessing the essence of = humanity)=20 but are also merely human (possessing the previously = mentioned=20 limitations). Jesus Christ, on the other hand, is fully = human but=20 not merely human. These Christian thinkers have suggested = that the=20 limitations of human nature may be common human properties = (common=20 to members of a particular kind) but not essential human = properties=20 (indispensable to a particular kind). If this is correct, Jesus = Christ=20 could have a human nature that makes Him fully human = (possessing=20 the essence of humanity) without being merely human = (possessing the=20 above mentioned limitations). Therefore Christ=92s fully human = nature=20 (essential humanity without limitation) is not at odds with His = fully=20 divine nature.

The True Meaning of Christmas

During the Christmas season, Christians celebrate the great = truth of=20 the Incarnation. For in the Christ child of Bethlehem, God enters = into=20 human history and reveals Himself up close and personal. The = astounding=20 truth is that in Jesus Christ, God is encountered in a real, = personal,=20 historical, and tangible way. Alister E. McGrath reflects upon the = ultimate significance of Christmas:

What sorts of things does the incarnation tell us about the = =91God and=20 Father of our Lord Jesus Christ=92? Perhaps most obviously, it = tells us=20 that the God with whom we are dealing is no distant ruler who = remains=20 aloof from the affairs of his creatures, but one who is = passionately=20 concerned with them to the extent that he takes the initiative = in coming=20 to them. God doesn=92t just reveal things about himself = =96- he=20 reveals himself in Jesus Christ=85. The incarnation = speaks to us of=20 a God who acts to demonstrate his love for us. That = =91God is love=92=20 (1 John 4:8) is a deep and important truth=97but far more = important is the=20 truth that God acted to demonstrate this love. =91In this = the love=20 of God was made manifest among us, that God sent his only Son = into the=20 world, so that we might live through him=92 (1 John 4:9). = Actions, as we=20 are continually reminded, speak louder than=20 words.¹⁸

References:

C.S. Lewis, Mere Christianity (New York: Macmillan, = 1952),=20 154. In this quote, Lewis slightly rephrases a statement made by = the=20 ancient church father Athanasius (ca. 296-373).=20
As cited in Alister E. McGrath, An Introduction To=20 Christianity (Cambridge, Mass: Blackwell, 1997), 131-32.=20
With regard to the Trinity, see Kenneth Richard Samples, = =93Thinking=20 About The Trinity: =91One What and Three Whos,=92=94 Facts = For Faith,=20 Quarter 3 (2000): 8-13.=20
Walter A. Elwell, ed., Evangelical Dictionary of = Theology=20 (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1984), s.v. =93Hypostatic Union.=94=20
These points were influenced by Richard A. Muller, = Dictionary of=20 Latin and Greek Theological Terms (Grand Rapids: Baker, = 1985), s.v.=20 =93incarnatio,=94 =93persona Christi,=94 = =93unio personalis=94;=20 Wayne Grudem, Systematic Theology (Grand Rapids: = Zondervan,=20 1994), 529-67; Charles Hodge, Systematic Theology vol. 2 = (Grand=20 Rapids: Eerdmans, reprint 1986), 387-89; Louis Berkhof, = Systematic=20 Theology (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1938), 321-30.=20
See Murray J. Harris, Jesus As God: The New Testament Use = of=20 Theos in Reference to Jesus (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1992).=20
For a thorough and substantive treatment of the Scriptural = support=20 for the Incarnation (especially the deity of Christ), see Murray = J.=20 Harris, Jesus As God; and Robert L. Reymond, Jesus, = Divine=20 Messiah: The New Testament Witness (Phillipsburg, NJ: = Presbyterian=20 and Reformed, 1990). For a detailed theological exploration of = the=20 doctrine of the Incarnation, see Benjamin B. Warfield, The = Person and=20 Work of Christ (Philadelphia: Presbyterian and Reformed, = 1950), and=20 Millard J. Erickson, The Word Became Flesh (Grand Rapids: = Baker,=20 1991).=20
The outline material in support of the deity of Jesus Christ = was=20 derived from Murray J. Harris, Jesus As God, 315-17; and = John=20 Jefferson Davis, Handbook of Basic Bible Texts (Grand = Rapids:=20 Zondervan, 1984), 68-74.=20
All of these titles in their appropriate Scriptural context = support=20 the notion that Jesus Christ is a divine person. See McGrath, = 108-15;=20 and Reymond, 44-126.=20
Millard J. Erickson, Introducing Christian Doctrine, = L.=20 Arnold Hustad (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1992), 214-23.
McGrath, 75.=20
Bruce Milne, Know the Truth (Downers Grove, IL: = InterVarsity=20 Press, 1982), 125-49.=20
H. Wayne House, Charts of Christian Theology and = Doctrine=20 (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1992), 55-56.=20
Norman L. Geisler, Baker Encyclopedia of Christian=20 Apologetics (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1999), s.v. =93Logic.=94=20
Elwell, s.vv. =93Hypostatic Union.=94=20
John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion=20 (Philadelphia: Westminster Press) 2.13.4.=20
For a philosophical defense of the doctrine of the = Incarnation, see=20 Thomas D. Senor=92s =93The Incarnation and the Trinity,=94 in = Michael J.=20 Murray ed., Reason for the Hope Within (Grand Rapids: = Eerdmans,=20 1999), 238-252; and Thomas V. Morris, Our Idea of God = (Downers=20 Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1991), 159-84.=20
Alister E. McGrath, Understanding Jesus (Grand = Rapids:=20 Zondervan, 1987), 113-14.

Finding Darwin=92s=20 God: A Scientist=92s Search for Common Ground between God and = Evolution.=20

By Kenneth R. Miller. New York, NY: Cliff Street Books/Harper = Collins,=20 1999. 338 pages, index. Hardcover; $25.00.

Reviewed by Fuz Rana

Finding Darwin=92s God defends Darwinian evolution, = responds to=20 evolution=92s most widely known critics, and attempts to = communicate what=20 author Ken Miller sees as a false dichotomy between evolution and=20 traditional western monotheism. Miller, a cell biologist and = professor at=20 Brown University, has published numerous articles in peer-reviewed = journals, and co-authored widely used high school and college = biology=20 textbooks. Miller has long been active in the creation/evolution = debate=20 and is a highly vocal critic of the growing Intelligent Design = movement.=20 Because of his involvement in the Origins debate, it behooves = those=20 interested in science apologetics to become familiar with his = perspective=20 and to contemplate his ideas.

Miller begins Finding Darwin=92s God by introducing the = reader to=20 the =93ins and outs=94 of Darwinian evolution. He fully embraces=20 methodological naturalism in his approach to biology and = intertwines his=20 explanation of the evolutionary process with his case for why = natural=20 processes are sufficiently endowed and solely responsible for = life=92s=20 diversity. After this introduction, Miller seeks to refute: 1) = young-earth=20 proponent=92s views on creationism; 2) Phillip Johnson = (author of=20 Darwin on Trial, Reason in the Balance, The Wedge of Truth) = and the=20 Intelligent Design movement=92s attack on the evolutionary = paradigm; and 3)=20 Michael Behe=92s (author of Darwin=92s Black Box) = biochemical argument=20 for design embodied in the concept of irreducible = complexity.

Having addressed these critics of evolution, Miller then takes = on=20 strict atheistic materialism. He finds atheistic biologists out of = line=20 when they equate the success of evolution to the death of = theism. In=20 no uncertain terms, he blames these atheists for the negative = perception=20 much of the public holds of the theory of evolution. He sees the=20 challenges to biological evolution not as scientifically = warranted, but=20 motivated by a deep-seated emotional response to the implications = attached=20 to evolutionary theory by atheists.

In the final three chapters, Miller devotes his efforts to = dispelling=20 the commonly held view that biological evolution represents a = threat to=20 Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Instead, he argues that = Darwinian=20 evolution can and should play a central role in rightly shaping = our=20 understanding of God=92s grandeur.

In general, Finding Darwin=92s God is readily accessible = to the=20 nonscientist. Ever articulate, Miller comes across as objective = and=20 fair-minded. When evaluating his arguments, however, the reader = should be=20 wary of his apparent even-handedness, winsome approach, and = passion for=20 Darwinian evolution. For example, his defense of Darwinian = evolution=20 and his response to Johnson=92s assertion that the fossil record = is=20 inconsistent with biological evolution is unconvincing=97even = though Miller=20 argues his point with great zeal. He repeatedly points to examples = of=20 micro-evolutionary changes (variations within species) as=20 supporting evidence for macro-evolutionary changes (origins = of new=20 groups of organisms at the genus level and higher).

Miller=92s response to Behe=92s concept of irreducible = complexity appears=20 to be quite effective on the surface. Miller cites several = examples from=20 the scientific literature that seem to describe the = emergence of=20 irreducibly complex systems strictly by natural processes. If this = is the=20 case, Behe=92s Design argument comes completely unglued. = However, a=20 careful reading of the original papers, in each case, turns up = crucial=20 details that Miller has neglected to convey. In each = instance, the=20 omitted =93fine points=94 highlight the inability of natural = processes to=20 generate irreducibly complex biochemical systems. In fact, = the=20 papers he cites describe extensive researcher = intervention=BEwithout which=20 the =93evolution=94 of the irreducibly complex biochemistry under=20 investigation would not have been possible. Ironically, when = this is=20 taken into account, Miller=92s argument against Behe=92s = biochemical evidence=20 for Intelligent Design actually provides powerful support for = Behe=92s=20 position.

Miller=92s attempt to accommodate biological evolution within = western=20 theism fails, too. Miller can only make evolution and = traditional=20 Christian theism co-exist by rejecting central tenets of orthodox=20 Christianity=BEsuch as God=92s sovereignty and omniscience, and = mankind=92s=20 original sin=BEand by viewing Genesis 1 as Hebrew mythology.

Still, Miller should be commended for writing Finding = Darwin=92s=20 God. It is refreshing to see a critic of Intelligent Design = seriously=20 grapple with the relationship between science and religion and = attempt to=20 discover God=92s glory in His creation. Those with a serious = interest in=20 science apologetics should take the time to read Finding = Darwin=92s=20 God. Several skeptics have touted this book as one of = the best=20 responses to the Intelligent Design movement. If this is the = case,=20 then Christian apologists should become familiar with Miller=92s = arguments=20 and tactics and make every effort to prepare thoughtful responses. = For=20 non-believing skeptics will undoubtedly bring up his arguments as = they=20 dialogue with believers. After taking Miller=92s assault = head on, it=20 is comforting to realize that =93one of the best=94 so-called = rebuttals to the=20 scientific evidence for Intelligent Design falls far short of = being=20 convincing.

=A9 1988-2003 Reasons To = Believe, Glendora,=20 CA, All Rights Reserved
No content from this site may be = physically=20 kept on any other Web site without the express written permission = of=20 Reasons To Believe.

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Facts for Faith

Issue 4, 2000

Articles

Repeatable=20 Evolution or Repeated Creation?

The Contingent Nature of the Evolutionary Process

A Test for Evolution, A Test for Creation

Anolis Lizards

Ranid Frogs

Cichlids

Mangabeys

River Dolphins

Pericallis

Evolutionary Attempts to Account for Repeatable Evolution

Conclusion

References:

Bob=20 Stewart: Soldier, Astronaut, and Compelling Apologist

God=92s Plan for=20 Humanity=97Paradise Restored or Paradise = Replaced?

Better Than Eden19

References:

Convergence:=20 Evidence for a Single Creator

References:

The = Measurability of the=20 Universe=96=96a Record of the Creator=92s Design

The Measurability of the Earth

The Measurability of the Sun

The Astronomical Realm

Teleological Implications

Sidebar: Standard Candles

References:

First = Detection=20 of Earth-sized Planet?

References:

Pr= otein=20 Structures Reveal Even More Evidence for Design

References:

Problem of Evil = (Part=20 Two)

Moral Evil and Natural Evil

The Theoretical versus the Personal Problems of = Evil

Evil in General versus Specific Instances of = Evil

Conclusion

Thinking About = The=20 Incarnation:The Divine Word Became Flesh

The Historic Christian Doctrine of the Incarnation

The Christian Theistic View of God and the Incarnation

The Hypostatic Union

Ten Essential Points about the Incarnation

Four Critical Questions about the Incarnation

I. Since there is no passage in the New Testament where Jesus = Christ=20 actually says =93I am God,=94 how did Christianity come to = formulate the=20 doctrine of the Incarnation?

A. Biblical Support for the True Deity of Jesus = Christ

B. Biblical Support for the True Humanity of Jesus Christ

II. Why is the doctrine of the Incarnation important?

III. Historically speaking, weren=92t there theological = positions held=20 by individuals and various groups that challenged and/or rejected = the=20 orthodox position concerning the person and nature of Christ?

IV. Isn=92t the very concept of the Incarnation (one person as = God and=20 man) logically incoherent?

The True Meaning of Christmas

References:

Finding Darwin=92s=20 God: A Scientist=92s Search for Common Ground between God and = Evolution.=20

Better Than Eden¹⁹

Thinking About = The=20 Incarnation:
The Divine Word Became Flesh